Effects of gender reactions to stereotype advertisements – Case study in Bulgaria
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.34069/AI/2022.57.09.12Palabras clave:
advertising stereotypes, cross-gender reactions, reactance to advertising.Resumen
This investigation has two aims: to establish the presence of stereotypes in advertisements offered in Bulgaria and to identify which stereotypes achieve positive and negative effects on consumers of both genders. Taking into account Eisend's theoretical formulation of gender roles in advertising (2019), as well as research on the cross-gender effects of stereotypes in advertising according to the most recent studies of Akestam et al. (2021), the author examines the influence achieved through three of the components – trait descriptors, physical characteristics and role behaviors. The results of the analysis of variance (ANOVA) show that according to trait descriptors for women, as well as role behavior for men, the highest influence was achieved in the investigated advertisements. When measuring cross-gender influences, no statistically significant differences were found between men and women in the influence of advertising containing images of the same gender. Conducted Student-Fischer’s T-tests evidenced influence achieved for advertisements with male and female images, as well as with female product images. This study can serve organizations offering products and services in Bulgaria, and its originality is expressed in the mixed consumer reactions found.
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Akestam, N., Rosengren, S., Dahlen, M., Liljedal, K., & Berg, H. (2021). Gender Stereotypes in Advertising have Negative Cross-gender Effects. European Journal of Marketing, 55(13), 63-93. DOI 10.1108/EJM-02-2019-0125
Akestam, N. (2017). Understanding Advertising Stereotypes, Social and Brand-Related Effects of Stereotyped versus Non-Stereotyped Portrayals in Advertising, (Doctoral Dissertation in Business Administration), Stockholm School of Economics, Sweden. ISBN 978-91—7731-070-9,
Antioco, M., Smeesters, D., & Le Boedec, A. (2012). Take Your Pick: Kate Moss or the Girl Next Door?. Journal of Advertising Research, 52(1), 15-30. https://doi.org/10.2501/JAR-52-1-015-030
Ashmore, R.D., & Del Boca, F.K. (1981). Conceptual Approaches to Stereotypes and Stereotyping', in Cognitive Processes in Stereotyping and Intergroup Behavior, (Ed.) Hamilton, D.L., 1-35, Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ISBN 9781315668758
Baeza, S. (2011). Gender and Advertising - How gender shapes meaning, Chapter 7, Academia, 89-111. in Sheehan K, (2011). Controversies in contemporary advertising, SAGE Knowledge.
Baxter, S. M., Kulczynski, A. & Illicic, J. (2016). Ads Aimed at Dads: Exploring Consumers’ Reactions toward Advertising that Conforms and Challenges Traditional Gender Role Ideologies. International Journal of Advertising, 35(6), 970-982. https://doi.org/10.1080/02650487.2015.1077605
Bian, X., & Wang, K. (2015). Are Size-zero Female Models Always More Effective than Average-sized Ones? Depends on Brand and Self-esteem. European Journal of Marketing, 49(7), 1184-1206. ISSN: 0309-0566
Brehm, J. W. (1966). A Theory of Psychological Reactance. Academic Press, Oxford.
Bower, A. B. (2001). Highly Attractive Models in Advertising and the Women Who Loathe them: The Implications of Negative Affect for Spokesperson Effectiveness. Journal of Advertising, 30(3), 51-63. https://doi.org/10.1080/00913367.2001.10673645
Darley, W., & Smith, R. (2013). Gender Differences in Information Processing Strategies: An Empirical Test of the Selectivity Model in Advertising Response. Journal of Advertising, 24(1), 41-56. DOI: 10.1080/00913367.1995.10673467
Davis, K. (2002). A dubious equality’: men, women and cosmetic surgery. Body and Society, 8(1), 49-65. https://doi.org/10.1177/1357034X02008001003
Deaux, K., & Lewis, L.L. (1984). Structure of Gender Stereotypes: Interrelationships Among Components and Gender Label. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46(5), 991-1004. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.46.5.991
Desvaux, G., Devillard-Hoellinger, S., & Baumgarten, P. (2007). Women Matter: Gender Diversity, a Corporate Performance Driver. Paris: McKinsey & Company.
Eagly, ?. (2009). The His and Hers of Prosocial Behavior: An Examination of the Social Psychology of Gender. American Psychology, 64(8), 644-658. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.64.8.644
Eisend, M. (2010). A Meta-analysis of Gender Role in Advertising. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 38(4), 418-440. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-009-0181-x
Eisend, M., Plagemann, J., & Sollwedel, J. (2014). Gender Role and Humor in Advertising: The Occurrence of Stereotyping in Humorous and Non-Humorous Advertising and its Consequences for Advertising Effectiveness. Journal of Advertising, 43(3), 256-273. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00913367.2013.857621
Eisend, M. (2019). Gender Roles. Journal of Advertising, 48(1), 72-80. https://doi.org/10.1080/00913367.2019.1566103
Ganeva, Z. (2016). Let's reinvent statistics with IBM SPSS Statistics. Elestra. ISBN 978-619-7292-01-5
Gentry, J., & Harrison, R. (2010). Is Advertising a Barrier to Male Movement Toward Gender Change? Marketing Theory, 10(1), 74-96. https://doi.org/10.1177/1470593109355246
Halliwell, E., & Dittmar, H. (2004). Does Size Matter? The Impact of Model’s Body Size on Women’s Body-Focused Anxiety and Advertising Effectiveness. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 23(1), 104-122. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.23.1.104.26989
Hatzithomas, L., Boutsouki, C., & Ziamou, P. (2016). A Longitudinal Analysis of the Changing Roles of Gender in Advertising: A Content Analysis of Super Bowl Commercials. International Journal of Advertising, 35(5), 888-906. https://doi.org/10.1080/02650487.2016.1162344
Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture’s Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions, and Organizations Across Nations, 2. London: Sage. ISBN 435-797-2632
Huhmann, B. A., & Limbu, Y. B. (2016). Influence of Gender Stereotypes on Advertising Offensiveness and Attitude Toward Advertising in General. International Journal of Advertising, 35(5), 846-863. https://doi.org/10.1080/02650487.2016.1157912
Janssen, D. M., & Paas, L. J. (2014). Moderately Thin Advertising Models Are Optimal, most of the Time: Moderating the Quadratic Effect of Model Body Size on Ad Attitude by Fashion Leadership. Marketing Letters, 25(2), 167-177. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24571133
Johnson J. A. (2014). Measuring Thirty Facets of the Five Factor Model with a 120-Item Public Domain Inventory: Development of the IPIP-NEO-120. Journal of Research in Personality, 51(7), 78-89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2014.05.003
Knoll, S., Eisend, M., & Steinhagen, J. (2011). Gender Roles in Advertising: Measuring and Comparing Gender Stereotyping on Public and Private TV Channels in Germany. International Journal of Advertising 30(5), 867-888. https://doi.org/10.2501/IJA-30-5-867-888
Lee, K., & Ashton, M. C. (2004). Psychometric Properties of the HEXACO Personality Inventory. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 39(9), 329-358. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327906mbr3902_8
Liljedal, K. T., Berg, H. & Dahlen, M. (2020). Effects of Nonstereotyped Occupational Gender Role Portrayal in Advertising. How Showing Women in Male-stereotyped Job Roles Sends Positive Signals about Brands. Journal of Advertising Research, 60(2), 179-196. https://doi.org/10.2501/JAR-2020-008
Lorenzen, L. A., Grieve, F. G. & Thomas, A. (2004). Brief Report. Exposure to Muscular Male Models Decreases Men’s Body Satisfaction. Sex Role, 51(11/12), 743-748. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-004-0723-0
Macrae, C. N., Milne, A. B, & Bodenhausen, G. V. (1994). Stereotypes as Energy-Saving Devices: A Peek Inside the Cognitive Toolbox. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66(1), 37-47. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.66.1.37
Maher, K., & Childs, N. (2003), A Longitudinal Content Analysis of Gender Roles in Children’s Television Advertisements: A 27 Year Review. Journal of Current Issues and Research in Advertising, 25 (1), 71–81. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10641734.2003.10505142
Markey, P. M., & Markey, C. N. (2009). A Brief Assessment of the Interpersonal Circumplex: The IPIP-IPC. Assessment, 16 (4), 352-361. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191109340382
Matthes, J., Prieler, M., & Adam, K. (2016). Gender-Role Portrayals in Television Advertising Across the Globe. Sex Role, 75(7), 314–327. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-016-0617-y
Meyers-Levy, J., & Loken, B. (2015). Revisiting Gender Differences: What We Know and What Lies Ahead. Journal of Consumer psychology, 25(1), 129-149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcps.2014.06.003
Morrison, M. M., & Shaffer, D. R. (2003). Gender-Role Congruence and Self-Referencing as Determinants of Advertising Effectiveness. Sex Role, 49(5/6), 265-275. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024604424224
Paek, H. J., Nelson, M. R., & Vilela, A. M. (2011). Examination of Gender-role Portrayals in Television Advertising across Seven Countries. Sex Roles, 64(3), 192-207. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-010-9850-y
Phillips, B., & McQuarrie, E. (2011). Contesting the social impact of marketing: A re-characterization of women’s fashion advertising. Marketing Theory, 11(2), 99-126. https://doi.org/10.1177/1470593111403215
Pratto, F., & Bargh, J.A. (1991). Stereotyping based on apparently individuating information: trait and global components of sex stereotypes under attention overload. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 27(1), 26-47. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1031(91)90009-U
Ricciardelli, R., Clow, K.A., & White, P. (2010). Investigating Hegemonic Masculinity: Portrayals of Masculinity in Men’s Lifestyle Magazines. Sex Roles, 63(1/2), 64-78. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-010-9764-8
Richins, M.L. (1991). Social comparison and the idealized images of advertising. Journal of Consumer Research, 18(1), 71-83. https://doi.org/10.1086/209242
Shield, V. R. (2016). Selling the Sex That Sells: Mapping the Evolution of Gender Advertising Research Across Three Decades. Annals of the International Communication Association, 20(1), 71-109. https://doi.org/10.1080/23808985.1997.11678939
Spasova, L., & Taneva, T. (2021). Influence of Gender on Advertising Responses of Young People for Products of Mobile Operators in Bulgaria. SHS Web of Conferences 120, 04002. https://doi.org/10.1051/shsconf/202112004002
Taylor, C. R., & Stern, B. B. (1997). Asian-Americans: Television advertising and the “model minority” stereotype. Journal of Advertising, 26(2), 47-61. https://doi.org/10.1080/00913367.1997.10673522
Thorbjørnsen, H., & Dahlén, M. (2011). Customer Reactions to Acquirer-Dominant Mergers and Acquisitions. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 28(4), 332-341. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijresmar.2011.05.005
White, M.J., & White, G.B. (2006). Implicit and Explicit Occupational Gender Stereotypes. Sex Roles, 55(3/4), 259-266. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-006-9078-z
Wolin, L.D. (2003). Gender Issues in Advertising: An Oversight Synthesis of Research 1970-2002. Journal of Advertising Research, 43(1), 111-129. https://doi.org/10.2501/JAR-43-1-111-130
Wolin, L. D., & Korgaonkar, P. (2003). Web Advertising: Gender Differences in Beliefs, Attitudes and Behavior. Internet Research, 13(5), 375–385. DOI: 10.1108/10662240310501658
Zawisza, M. & Cinnirella, M. (2010). What Matters More – Breaking Tradition or Stereotype Content? Envious and Paternalistic Gender Stereotypes and Advertising Effectiveness. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 40(7), 1767-1797. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2010.00639.x
Zayer, T. L., McGrath, M.A., & Castro-Gonzalez, P. (2020). Men and masculinities in a Changing World: (de)legitimizing Gender Ideals in Advertising. European Journal of Marketing, 54(1), 238-260. DOI: 10.1108/ejm-07-2018-0502
Akestam, N. (2017). Understanding Advertising Stereotypes, Social and Brand-Related Effects of Stereotyped versus Non-Stereotyped Portrayals in Advertising, (Doctoral Dissertation in Business Administration), Stockholm School of Economics, Sweden. ISBN 978-91—7731-070-9,
Antioco, M., Smeesters, D., & Le Boedec, A. (2012). Take Your Pick: Kate Moss or the Girl Next Door?. Journal of Advertising Research, 52(1), 15-30. https://doi.org/10.2501/JAR-52-1-015-030
Ashmore, R.D., & Del Boca, F.K. (1981). Conceptual Approaches to Stereotypes and Stereotyping', in Cognitive Processes in Stereotyping and Intergroup Behavior, (Ed.) Hamilton, D.L., 1-35, Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ISBN 9781315668758
Baeza, S. (2011). Gender and Advertising - How gender shapes meaning, Chapter 7, Academia, 89-111. in Sheehan K, (2011). Controversies in contemporary advertising, SAGE Knowledge.
Baxter, S. M., Kulczynski, A. & Illicic, J. (2016). Ads Aimed at Dads: Exploring Consumers’ Reactions toward Advertising that Conforms and Challenges Traditional Gender Role Ideologies. International Journal of Advertising, 35(6), 970-982. https://doi.org/10.1080/02650487.2015.1077605
Bian, X., & Wang, K. (2015). Are Size-zero Female Models Always More Effective than Average-sized Ones? Depends on Brand and Self-esteem. European Journal of Marketing, 49(7), 1184-1206. ISSN: 0309-0566
Brehm, J. W. (1966). A Theory of Psychological Reactance. Academic Press, Oxford.
Bower, A. B. (2001). Highly Attractive Models in Advertising and the Women Who Loathe them: The Implications of Negative Affect for Spokesperson Effectiveness. Journal of Advertising, 30(3), 51-63. https://doi.org/10.1080/00913367.2001.10673645
Darley, W., & Smith, R. (2013). Gender Differences in Information Processing Strategies: An Empirical Test of the Selectivity Model in Advertising Response. Journal of Advertising, 24(1), 41-56. DOI: 10.1080/00913367.1995.10673467
Davis, K. (2002). A dubious equality’: men, women and cosmetic surgery. Body and Society, 8(1), 49-65. https://doi.org/10.1177/1357034X02008001003
Deaux, K., & Lewis, L.L. (1984). Structure of Gender Stereotypes: Interrelationships Among Components and Gender Label. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46(5), 991-1004. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.46.5.991
Desvaux, G., Devillard-Hoellinger, S., & Baumgarten, P. (2007). Women Matter: Gender Diversity, a Corporate Performance Driver. Paris: McKinsey & Company.
Eagly, ?. (2009). The His and Hers of Prosocial Behavior: An Examination of the Social Psychology of Gender. American Psychology, 64(8), 644-658. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.64.8.644
Eisend, M. (2010). A Meta-analysis of Gender Role in Advertising. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 38(4), 418-440. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-009-0181-x
Eisend, M., Plagemann, J., & Sollwedel, J. (2014). Gender Role and Humor in Advertising: The Occurrence of Stereotyping in Humorous and Non-Humorous Advertising and its Consequences for Advertising Effectiveness. Journal of Advertising, 43(3), 256-273. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00913367.2013.857621
Eisend, M. (2019). Gender Roles. Journal of Advertising, 48(1), 72-80. https://doi.org/10.1080/00913367.2019.1566103
Ganeva, Z. (2016). Let's reinvent statistics with IBM SPSS Statistics. Elestra. ISBN 978-619-7292-01-5
Gentry, J., & Harrison, R. (2010). Is Advertising a Barrier to Male Movement Toward Gender Change? Marketing Theory, 10(1), 74-96. https://doi.org/10.1177/1470593109355246
Halliwell, E., & Dittmar, H. (2004). Does Size Matter? The Impact of Model’s Body Size on Women’s Body-Focused Anxiety and Advertising Effectiveness. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 23(1), 104-122. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.23.1.104.26989
Hatzithomas, L., Boutsouki, C., & Ziamou, P. (2016). A Longitudinal Analysis of the Changing Roles of Gender in Advertising: A Content Analysis of Super Bowl Commercials. International Journal of Advertising, 35(5), 888-906. https://doi.org/10.1080/02650487.2016.1162344
Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture’s Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions, and Organizations Across Nations, 2. London: Sage. ISBN 435-797-2632
Huhmann, B. A., & Limbu, Y. B. (2016). Influence of Gender Stereotypes on Advertising Offensiveness and Attitude Toward Advertising in General. International Journal of Advertising, 35(5), 846-863. https://doi.org/10.1080/02650487.2016.1157912
Janssen, D. M., & Paas, L. J. (2014). Moderately Thin Advertising Models Are Optimal, most of the Time: Moderating the Quadratic Effect of Model Body Size on Ad Attitude by Fashion Leadership. Marketing Letters, 25(2), 167-177. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24571133
Johnson J. A. (2014). Measuring Thirty Facets of the Five Factor Model with a 120-Item Public Domain Inventory: Development of the IPIP-NEO-120. Journal of Research in Personality, 51(7), 78-89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2014.05.003
Knoll, S., Eisend, M., & Steinhagen, J. (2011). Gender Roles in Advertising: Measuring and Comparing Gender Stereotyping on Public and Private TV Channels in Germany. International Journal of Advertising 30(5), 867-888. https://doi.org/10.2501/IJA-30-5-867-888
Lee, K., & Ashton, M. C. (2004). Psychometric Properties of the HEXACO Personality Inventory. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 39(9), 329-358. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327906mbr3902_8
Liljedal, K. T., Berg, H. & Dahlen, M. (2020). Effects of Nonstereotyped Occupational Gender Role Portrayal in Advertising. How Showing Women in Male-stereotyped Job Roles Sends Positive Signals about Brands. Journal of Advertising Research, 60(2), 179-196. https://doi.org/10.2501/JAR-2020-008
Lorenzen, L. A., Grieve, F. G. & Thomas, A. (2004). Brief Report. Exposure to Muscular Male Models Decreases Men’s Body Satisfaction. Sex Role, 51(11/12), 743-748. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-004-0723-0
Macrae, C. N., Milne, A. B, & Bodenhausen, G. V. (1994). Stereotypes as Energy-Saving Devices: A Peek Inside the Cognitive Toolbox. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66(1), 37-47. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.66.1.37
Maher, K., & Childs, N. (2003), A Longitudinal Content Analysis of Gender Roles in Children’s Television Advertisements: A 27 Year Review. Journal of Current Issues and Research in Advertising, 25 (1), 71–81. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10641734.2003.10505142
Markey, P. M., & Markey, C. N. (2009). A Brief Assessment of the Interpersonal Circumplex: The IPIP-IPC. Assessment, 16 (4), 352-361. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191109340382
Matthes, J., Prieler, M., & Adam, K. (2016). Gender-Role Portrayals in Television Advertising Across the Globe. Sex Role, 75(7), 314–327. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-016-0617-y
Meyers-Levy, J., & Loken, B. (2015). Revisiting Gender Differences: What We Know and What Lies Ahead. Journal of Consumer psychology, 25(1), 129-149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcps.2014.06.003
Morrison, M. M., & Shaffer, D. R. (2003). Gender-Role Congruence and Self-Referencing as Determinants of Advertising Effectiveness. Sex Role, 49(5/6), 265-275. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024604424224
Paek, H. J., Nelson, M. R., & Vilela, A. M. (2011). Examination of Gender-role Portrayals in Television Advertising across Seven Countries. Sex Roles, 64(3), 192-207. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-010-9850-y
Phillips, B., & McQuarrie, E. (2011). Contesting the social impact of marketing: A re-characterization of women’s fashion advertising. Marketing Theory, 11(2), 99-126. https://doi.org/10.1177/1470593111403215
Pratto, F., & Bargh, J.A. (1991). Stereotyping based on apparently individuating information: trait and global components of sex stereotypes under attention overload. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 27(1), 26-47. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1031(91)90009-U
Ricciardelli, R., Clow, K.A., & White, P. (2010). Investigating Hegemonic Masculinity: Portrayals of Masculinity in Men’s Lifestyle Magazines. Sex Roles, 63(1/2), 64-78. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-010-9764-8
Richins, M.L. (1991). Social comparison and the idealized images of advertising. Journal of Consumer Research, 18(1), 71-83. https://doi.org/10.1086/209242
Shield, V. R. (2016). Selling the Sex That Sells: Mapping the Evolution of Gender Advertising Research Across Three Decades. Annals of the International Communication Association, 20(1), 71-109. https://doi.org/10.1080/23808985.1997.11678939
Spasova, L., & Taneva, T. (2021). Influence of Gender on Advertising Responses of Young People for Products of Mobile Operators in Bulgaria. SHS Web of Conferences 120, 04002. https://doi.org/10.1051/shsconf/202112004002
Taylor, C. R., & Stern, B. B. (1997). Asian-Americans: Television advertising and the “model minority” stereotype. Journal of Advertising, 26(2), 47-61. https://doi.org/10.1080/00913367.1997.10673522
Thorbjørnsen, H., & Dahlén, M. (2011). Customer Reactions to Acquirer-Dominant Mergers and Acquisitions. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 28(4), 332-341. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijresmar.2011.05.005
White, M.J., & White, G.B. (2006). Implicit and Explicit Occupational Gender Stereotypes. Sex Roles, 55(3/4), 259-266. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-006-9078-z
Wolin, L.D. (2003). Gender Issues in Advertising: An Oversight Synthesis of Research 1970-2002. Journal of Advertising Research, 43(1), 111-129. https://doi.org/10.2501/JAR-43-1-111-130
Wolin, L. D., & Korgaonkar, P. (2003). Web Advertising: Gender Differences in Beliefs, Attitudes and Behavior. Internet Research, 13(5), 375–385. DOI: 10.1108/10662240310501658
Zawisza, M. & Cinnirella, M. (2010). What Matters More – Breaking Tradition or Stereotype Content? Envious and Paternalistic Gender Stereotypes and Advertising Effectiveness. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 40(7), 1767-1797. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2010.00639.x
Zayer, T. L., McGrath, M.A., & Castro-Gonzalez, P. (2020). Men and masculinities in a Changing World: (de)legitimizing Gender Ideals in Advertising. European Journal of Marketing, 54(1), 238-260. DOI: 10.1108/ejm-07-2018-0502
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2022-11-08
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Spasova, L. (2022). Effects of gender reactions to stereotype advertisements – Case study in Bulgaria. Amazonia Investiga, 11(57), 111–120. https://doi.org/10.34069/AI/2022.57.09.12
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