Mayers-Scotten’s 4-M Model: A Qusai-Experimental Study of Pashto-English Morphological Ability
Keywords:
Morphological ability, Pashto bilinguals, 4 M model, late morphemes, bilingual education.
Abstract
Bilingualism has been a myth for linguists and language policy and planning professionals for decades. Current study observes morphological ability and bilingual profile of L1 and L2 of Pashto mother-tongue children. Bilingual profile of the participants measured through bilingual language profile (BLP) tool. Both L1 and L2 children were tested before and after intervention. Morphological ability was measured through 4 M model. After 4 weeks of intervention, experimental child was able to read and write complex words with bridge morphemes. In contrast, controlled sample was not exposed to the intervention. The participants performed assigned language tasks and their performance-expressions were analyzed. Study confirms that early and late bridge morphemes are acquired and children have intelligibility of the language despite the fact that BLP shows low profile of the mother tongue. Significant effects of mother tongue were recorded in the participants’ performance. Effects of explicit morphological instruction was focused on identifying Pashto orthography and applying morphological ability on word formations. Findings reveal bilingual profile and patterns of morphological ability after didactic practice of intervention. Intervention contributed in developing Pashto orthography that was crucial for reading and writing proficiency. Direct impact on text-based inference and reading comprehension was another milestone of this qusai-experimental research. This model can be used for longitudinal studies.
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References
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Saddiqa, A. (2018). The Role of Pashto (as L1) and Urdu (as L2) in English Language Learning. Linguistics and Literature Review (LLR), 4(1), 1-17.
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Schwartz, M., & Asli, A. (2014). Bilingual teachers’ language strategies: The case of an Arabic–Hebrew kindergarten in Israel. Teaching and Teacher Education, 38, 22–32.
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van Hooff, L. (2018). A quasi-experimental study into the effects of Bilingualism, Language Dominance, and Language Mindsets on Language Learning Achievement. (Master Thesis, Tilberg University, Netherlands).
Vihman, V. A. (2018). Language Interaction in Emergent Grammars: Morphology and Word Order in Bilingual Children’s Code-Switching. Languages, 3(4), 40.
Wei, L. (2000). Types of morphemes and their implications for second language morpheme acquisition. International Journal of Bilingualism, 4(1), 29-43.
Al-Ahdal, A. A. M. H. (2020). Translanguagism and the Bilingual EFL Learner of Saudi Arabia: Exploring New Vistas. Asian EFL Journal, 27(1), 14-26.
Ali Khan, A., & Muysken, P. (2014). Strategies for incorporating nouns and verbs in code-mixing: the case of Pashto-English bilingual speech. Lapurdum. Euskal ikerketen aldizkaria| Revue d'études basques| Revista de estudios vascos| Basque studies review, (18), 97-137.
Alnoori, B. S. M. (2019). Writing skills developed through Language Integrated Content. Amazonia Investiga, 8(19), 362-368. https://amazoniainvestiga.info/index.php/amazonia/article/view/238
Asli-Badarneh, A., & Leikin, M. (2019). Morphological ability among monolingual and bilingual speakers in early childhood: The case of two Semitic languages. International Journal of Bilingualism, 23(5), 1087-1105.
Beaudrie, S. (2012). A corpus-based study on the misspellings of Spanish heritage learners and their implications for teaching. Linguist. Educ. 23, 135–144. doi: 10.1016/j.linged.2011.09.001
Birdsong, D., Gertken, L. M., & Amengual, M. (2012). Bilingual language profile: An easy-to-use instrument to assess bilingualism. COERLL, University of Texas at Austin.
Borysko, N., Dolyna, A., Bondarenko, E., & Korniiko, I. (2020). Learning German grammar after English: Let us give Ukrainian students a chance. Amazonia Investiga, 9(29), 516-529. https://amazoniainvestiga.info/index.php/amazonia/article/view/1416
Bosch, S., Veríssimo, J., & Clahsen, H. (2019). Inflectional morphology in bilingual language processing: An age-of-acquisition study. Language Acquisition, 26(3), 339-360.
Boussofara-Omar, N. (2013). Revisiting Arabic diglossic switching in light of the MLF and its sub-models: The 4-M Model and the Abstract Level Model. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 6 (1), pp. 33-46
Chondrogianni, V., & Vasić, N. (2016). Cross-linguistic aspects in child L2 acquisition. International Journal of Bilingualism 2016, 20(4), 361–368.
Coleman, H. (2010). The English language in development. A paper commissioned by the British Council.
Dunn, A. L., & Tree, J. E. F. (2009). A quick, gradient bilingual dominance scale. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 12(3), 273-289.
Dyson, B. (2009). Processability Theory and the role of morphology in English as a second language development: a longitudinal study. Second Language Research, 25(3), 355-376.
Gertken, L. M., Amengual, M., & Birdsong, D. (2014). Assessing language dominance with the bilingual language profile. Measuring L2 proficiency: Perspectives from SLA, 208-225.
Heine, L. (2014). Models of the bilingual lexicon and their theoretical implications for CLIL. The Language Learning Journal, 42(2), 225-237.
Hsu, L. S. J., Ip, K. I., Arredondo, M. M., Tardif, T., & Kovelman, I. (2019). Simultaneous acquisition of English and Chinese impacts children’s reliance on vocabulary, morphological and phonological awareness for reading in English. International journal of bilingual education and bilingualism, 22(2), 207-223.
Itani-Adams, Y., Iwasaki, J., & Kawaguchi, S. (2017). Similarities and differences between simultaneous and successive bilingual children: Acquisition of Japanese morphology. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and English Literature, 6(7), 268-276.
Kecskes, I. (2006). The dual language model to explain code-switching: A cognitive-pragmatic approach. Intercultural Pragmatics, 3(3), 257-283.
Kecskes, I., & nde Papp, T. (2000). Foreign language and mother tongue. Psychology Press.
Keshavarz, M. H. (2007). Morphological development in the speech of a Persian–English bilingual child. Journal of psycholinguistic research, 36(4), 255-272.
Khan, A. A., & Khalid, A. (2018). Pashto-English codeswitching: Testing the morphosyntactic constraints of the MLF model. Lingua, 201, 78-91.
Khan, S., Akram, W., & Khan, A. (2016). Functions of Inflectional Morphemes in English and Pashto Languages. Journal of Applied Linguistics and Language Research, 3(1), 197-216.
López, L. (2018). Toward an Integrated Model of Bilingual Grammar. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago.
Lowie, W. (2000). Cross‐linguistic influence on morphology in the bilingual mental lexicon. Studia Linguistica, 54(2), 175-185.
Miikkulainen, R., & Kiran, S. (2009, June). Modeling the bilingual lexicon of an individual subject. In International Workshop on Self-Organizing Maps (pp. 191-199). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.
Myers-Scotton, C. (2006). Multiple voices: An introduction to bilingualism. USA: Wiley-Blackwel.
Myers-Scotton, C. M., & Jake, J. L. (2017). Revisiting the 4-M model: Codeswitching and morpheme election at the abstract level. International Journal of Bilingualism, 21(3), 340-366.
Myers-Scotton, C., & Jake, J. L. (2000). Testing the 4-M model: An introduction. International journal of bilingualism, 4(1), 1-8.
Nicoladis, E., Palmer, A., & Marentette, P. (2007). The role of type and token frequency in using past tense morphemes correctly. Developmental Science, 10(2), 237-254.
Nunn, R., & Adamson, J. (2009). Accepting alternative voices in EFL journal articles. Busan: Asian EFL Journal Press.
Ocal, T., and Ehri, L. (2017b). Spelling pronunciations help college students remember how to spell difficult words. Read. Writ. 30, 947–967. doi: 10.1007/s11145-016-9707-z
Pipit, M., & Rahyono, F. X. (2020). The past tense expression of Indonesian learners: A morphosyntactic review and its implication toward teaching field. Asian EFL Journal, 27(2), 120-143.
Roberts, C. A. (1995). Bilingual education program models: A framework for understanding. Bilingual research journal, 19(3-4), 369-378.
Rock, P. S. (2018). Nuestra escuela: A Quasi-experimental Study of the Impact of Spanish Language Skills Training on the Attitudes and Practices of Non-Hispanic Teachers of Hispanic Students (Doctoral dissertation, Concordia University (Oregon)).
Saddiqa, A. (2018). The Role of Pashto (as L1) and Urdu (as L2) in English Language Learning. Linguistics and Literature Review (LLR), 4(1), 1-17.
Schmid, M. S., & Köpke, B. (2017). The relevance of first language attrition to theories of bilingual development. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism, 7(6), 637-667.
Schwartz, M., & Asli, A. (2014). Bilingual teachers’ language strategies: The case of an Arabic–Hebrew kindergarten in Israel. Teaching and Teacher Education, 38, 22–32.
Snyder, B., & Barzilay, R. (2008). Unsupervised multilingual learning for morphological segmentation. In Proceedings of acl-08: hlt (pp. 737-745).
Soudi, A., Neumann, G., & van den Bosch, A. (Eds.) (2007). Arabic computational morphology: Knowledge-based and empirical methods. In Arabic computational morphology (pp. 3–14). Amsterdam, Netherlands: Springer.
van Hooff, L. (2018). A quasi-experimental study into the effects of Bilingualism, Language Dominance, and Language Mindsets on Language Learning Achievement. (Master Thesis, Tilberg University, Netherlands).
Vihman, V. A. (2018). Language Interaction in Emergent Grammars: Morphology and Word Order in Bilingual Children’s Code-Switching. Languages, 3(4), 40.
Wei, L. (2000). Types of morphemes and their implications for second language morpheme acquisition. International Journal of Bilingualism, 4(1), 29-43.
Published
2020-11-23
How to Cite
Zahara, F.- tu, Saleem, T., Joiya, N., & Abdullah, F. (2020). Mayers-Scotten’s 4-M Model: A Qusai-Experimental Study of Pashto-English Morphological Ability. Amazonia Investiga, 9(34), 8-16. https://doi.org/10.34069/AI/2020.34.10.1
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