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DOI: https://doi.org/10.34069/AI/2024.76.04.29

How to Cite:

Iuksel, G., Dosenko, A., Sytnyk, O., Yuldasheva, L., & Zakharov, V. (2024). Journalism in times of war: challenges and

opportunities in the digital age. Amazonia Investiga, 13(76), 356-364. https://doi.org/10.34069/AI/2024.76.04.29

Journalism in times of war: challenges and opportunities in the digital

age

Журналістика під час війни: виклики та можливості в епоху цифрових технологій

Received: February 26, 2024 Accepted: April 29, 2024

Written by:

Gaiana Iuksel1

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0894-7544

Anzhelika Dosenko2

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5415-1299

Oleksii Sytnyk3

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0853-1442

Liudmyla Yuldasheva4

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6561-8827

Vitalii Zakharov5

https://orcid.org/0009-0005-0267-4097

Abstract

The current conditions of journalistic activity

demonstrate the importance of the ability to work

properly in times of conflict and instability. The

peculiarities of such work determined the purpose

of the article - to study the problems of conflict-

sensitive journalism as one of the trends of our

time. This goal was achieved through the use of

scientific methods. First of all, we are talking about

the method of content analysis of professional

scientific literature, the use of methods of

generalisation and systematisation.

The results of the study show that for objective

coverage of events, it is recommended to use the

idea of a ‘just’ war, to carefully assess the opinions

and views of different segments of the population

regarding the war, not to be in the position of

propagandists, to focus on the coverage of the

process, to demonstrate the interests and concerns

of the warring parties, avoiding the understanding

Анотація

Сучасні умови журналістської діяльності

демонструють важливість уміння правильно

працювати в умовах нестабільних ситуаціях.

Особливості такої роботи зумовили мету статті

– дослідити проблеми конфлікто-чутливої

журналістики як одного з трендів сучасності.

Цієї мети було досягнуто завдяки

використанню наукових методів. Насамперед,

мова йде про метод контент-аналізу фахової

наукової літератури, використання методів

узагальнення та систематизації.

Результати дослідження свідчать, що для

об’єктивного висвітлення подій

рекомендується використовувати ідею

«справедливої» війни, уважно оцінювати

думки та погляди різних верств населення на

війну, не займати позицію пропагандистів,

зосередити увагу на висвітленні процесу,

продемонструвати інтереси та занепокоєння

PhD in Philology, Associate Professor of the Department of Journalism, Educational & Scientific Institute of Philology and

Journalism, V.I. Vernadsky Taurida National University, Ukraine. WoS Researcher ID: AAB-2490-2021

PhD in Social Communications, Associate Professor, the Head of Department of Journalism, Educational and Scientific Institute of

Philology and Journalism, V. I. Vernadsky Taurida National University, Ukraine. WoS Researcher ID: Z-1396-2019

PhD in Social Communications, Associate Professor, Department of Publishing and Editing, Educational and Scientific Institute of

Journalism, Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv, Ukraine. WoS Researcher ID: ABB-3181-2021

PhD in Philology, Associate Professor of the Department of Slavic, Roman and German Philology, Educational and Scientific

Institute of Philology and Journalism, V.I. Vernadsky Taurida National University, Ukraine. WoS Researcher ID: Y-6026-2019

PhD in Philology, Senior Lecturer, Department of Television Journalism, Faculty of Cinema and Television, Kyiv National

University of Culture and Arts, Ukraine. WoS Researcher ID: KQV-4806-2024

Iuksel, G., Dosenko, A., Sytnyk, O., Yuldasheva, L., Zakharov, V. / Volume 13 - Issue 76: 356-364 / April, 2024

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of war as a concept of struggle for the same ideas.

As shown in the article, it is important to avoid

‘hate speech’, which is the basis for the

development of discriminatory policies. The

conclusions note that journalistic work should not

be understood as entertainment or selfish practice.

Keywords: ethics of conflict portrayal, media

literariness, influence of social media, conflict-

sensitive journalism, emotional intelligence.

ворогуючих сторін, уникаючи розуміння війни

як концепції боротьби за ті самі ідеї. Як

показано в статті, важливо уникати «мови

ненависті», яка є основою для розвитку

дискримінаційної політики. Розгляд елементів

інтеграції соціальних медіа в журналістику

показав важливість поглибленого фактчекінгу

як основи роботи з цим сегментом. Водночас

інструменти цензури можуть бути

неефективними і їх слід замінити елементами

налагодження якісної комунікації з

суспільством. У висновках зазначається, що

журналістську роботу не слід розуміти як

розвагу чи егоїстичну практику. Через значний

вплив на прийняття рішень конфліктно-

чутлива журналістика має дотримуватись

етичних принципів роботи, які можуть бути

закріплені у відповідних нормативно-правових

актах.

Ключові слова: етика висвітлення конфлікту,

медіаграмотність, вплив соціальних медіа,

конфлікто-чуттєва журналістика.

Introduction

Contemporary scholarly discourse has

established that journalism plays an important

role in covering current complex problems and

tense situations in today's society. At the same

time, journalism is currently undergoing serious

changes due to the emergence of the

phenomenon of ‘media convergence’, i.e. the

expansion of the audience in all possible ways

(Antonopoulos et al., 2020; Johnson et al., 2020).

Thus, this affects the transformation of the

methodology of covering events and the basic

principles of journalism.

In their materials, journalists may not adhere to

ethical professional principles and standards

when writing about conflict-sensitive topics. At

the same time, the events of the Russian-

Ukrainian war have demonstrated the importance

of the media in a modern democratic society

(Skurtul, 2023). In times of war, there is an

urgent need for accurate and high-quality

information, without which democracy cannot

function effectively (Zhytnikova, 2023).

On the other hand, intense competition and active

transformational digital changes require

journalists not only to have professional skills,

but also to have a detailed understanding of the

main trends in the modern globalised world. This

article will examine the main aspects of conflict-

sensitive journalism and its principles in modern

media. Thus, given the current realities, it is

necessary to comprehensively study the problem

of conflict-sensitive journalism, which will

determine the main purpose of the study.

At the same time, modern technologies used in

modern information wars involving the media

deserve important attention. All these aspects

make this problem extremely relevant for study.

Therefore, the main tasks include highlighting

the aspects of conflict-sensitive journalism,

identifying the negative effects of hate speech,

and determining the updates of journalistic work

with social media.

The structure of this papper consists of an

introduction, a systematic review of the

literature, which summarizes the main work of

the authors and trends in modern journalism,

results and conclusions. In the results section, the

main principles of conducting conflict-sensitive

journalism and its importance during the war are

described. The conclusions summarize the

practical features of using emotional-conflict

journalism and describe directions for further

research. Therefore, this study is aimed at solving

a topical and not fully researched topic, and the

conclusions demonstrate the importance of

avoiding hate speech when conducting

journalism in conditions of war.

Literature Review

Given the above-mentioned relevance of this

issue, contemporary authors have outlined the

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theoretical aspects of studying sensory

journalism in the digital age. Today, this area is

not well represented in research. The analysis of

the possibilities of sensitive messages is devoted

to studies that highlight the role of empathy in

journalistic material (Howard, 2015). In general,

Howard's (2015) work is devoted to the

theoretical concept of conflict-sensitive

journalism, and the author outlines the main

practical tips on how modern professional

journalists should cover sensitive topics,

especially in view of the conflict situation in

different regions. However, the limitation of this

study is a theoretical review of the basic

principles of conducting conflict-sensitive

journalism; however, the author does not delve

into practical solutions. Changes in Ukrainian

culture in the era of the Russian-Ukrainian war

are also highlighted in separate studies (Kurok et

al., 2023; Romaniuk et al., 2023). These studies

are important in the context of this topic given

the important role of Ukrainian culture and its

development during the war.

As for conflict-sensitive journalism in a broader

sense, this topic is present in theoretical studies

that contribute to the development of

methodology and monitoring of sensitivity in

relation to certain groups of people (Hackett,

2012; Lipschultz, 2020). At the same time,

Owino & Karani (2022) in their empirical study,

based on the analysis of media reports,

characterised the observance of ethical norms in

modern media resources. The authors also

proved that the media play an important role in

conflict resolution and peace-building. The

strength of the study is its empirical approach,

however, the local nature of the study can be

highlighted as a limitation.

At the same time, modern scholars argue that

digital communications in the online

environment, as well as the widespread

development of audio and television media,

allow for the free dissemination of any, and in

some cases, inaccurate information about the

actions of certain social groups or individuals

(Choi & Yang, 2021). This is an important

problem for modern journalism. In general,

modern authors have explored various

possibilities of digital journalism, in particular,

the study by Antonopoulos, Konidaris, Polykalas

& Lamprou (2020) analyses the phenomenon of

online journalism through the prism of analysing

individual news websites. The strength of this

study is the empirical measurements and

characterization of practical areas of journalism

implementation, at the same time, this study is

also local in nature, as the authors analyzed the

news websites available to them. Cheruiyot

(2022) proved the importance of media literacy

for the modern audience. The same problem is

covered in detail in Dadakhonov (2024), who

outlines the importance of media literacy based

on an empirical study of this issue. Guta (2021)

outlines the importance of journalistic ethics in

sensitive reporting. The strength of the study is

its extraordinary approach to the coverage of this

problem, however, the author generally

approached the chosen topic.

The development of conflict-sensitive journalism

is presented in Jimoh & Kayode (2018). These

authors have identified the peace journalism

model as an important way for journalists to

practice their craft. These authors also showed

the basic background and contexts of conflicts

and highlighted some peace initiatives in news

coverage of conflicts. The strong point of the

study is the raising of an actual topic, which is

currently not fully researched. However, some of

the statements made by these authors need to be

revised and clarified. Thus, although

contemporary studies have developed theoretical

aspects of conflict-sensitive journalism, this

topic is not fully covered and needs to be clarified

in view of current challenges.

Methodology

The study was conducted on the basis of a

content analysis of modern scientific literature.

This method allowed for a qualitative approach

to this study and a comprehensive

characterisation of the issue.

Data collection

Data collection was carried out using the main

scientometric databases of international and

national importance in order to include a variety

of sources. First, key words such as ‘journalism’,

‘conflict-sensitive journalism’, ‘digitalisation’,

‘Ukraine’, ‘war’, ‘journalism trends’ were

entered into the scientometric databases. After a

critical superficial analysis of the topics and

annotations, the most relevant sources were

selected - 50 items in total.

After that, the criteria for including the literature

were formed:

1. The article deals with general trends in the

development of journalism.

2. The article describes the digitalisation of

journalism.

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3. The main theoretical aspects of sensory

journalism in the modern informative space

are investigated.

4. The qualitative and quantitative data of a

conflict-sensitive journalist are described.

5. Preference was given to both qualitative and

quantitative research.

6. Inclusion of relevant and contemporary

literature.

The date range of the sources included included

literature from 2012 onwards. At the same time,

the main focus was on the analysis of

contemporary literature (from 2019).

Date Analysis

The paper uses the method of content analysis of

the literature, which was carried out in stages. In

particular, first, an initial analysis of the main

annotations from the selected literature was

carried out, and then the main results were

analysed. Thus, the main trends in the

development of modern journalism were

identified. Also, based on the systematic method,

the author characterises conflict-sensitive

journalism as a phenomenon that evolves in

accordance with modern globalised challenges.

Results and Discussion

Conflict-sensitive journalism has been

undergoing significant changes for a long time.

With regard to the problem of implementing it in

practice, researchers have identified a number of

aspects that need to be taken into account (see

Table 1).

Table 1.

Some aspects of implementing conflict-sensitive journalism

Aspects

Description

Avoiding the logic of a

‘tug of war’

The use of descriptions of war as a conflict between several parties fighting for the

same goal is inappropriate in journalistic work. Among the negative aspects of this

aspect is that its implementation leads to further escalation, the formation of

competition and the denial of the need for cooperation. Usually, confrontations are

not that simple. One of the important tasks of sensitive journalists is to find and

analyse the activities of all stakeholders. The grouping of interested ‘players’ into

two warring parties is replaced by exploring the interests and needs of all parties,

which carry equal weight, regardless of status.

Process orientation

Conflict-sensitive journalism requires a focus on the process, not just on the

coverage of events. The importance of the process is determined by the

characterisation of the history of events, contexts, circumstances and conditions,

coverage of the details of violence, etc.

Caution in assessing

opinions and views

Caution in assessing opinions and views In the course of journalistic work, it is

important to avoid generalising and presenting the opinions of the elite as the only

possible and existing ones. There is a need to study the parties and their views

regardless of their power and social status, and it is also important to present the

views of ordinary citizens.

Understanding the

injustice of war

Conflict-sensitive journalism refuses to accept narratives of a just war. Instead of

discussing the possible reasons for justifying war, it should demonstrate the cost of

warfare, its outcome and impact on social life, reveal the real face of war, and

demonstrate the destructive impact of conflicts in the modern world.

Countering propaganda

The two-sided geometry of war coverage does not imply taking a neutral position.

Using this method, a journalist must take sides. Theoretically, using rational

arguments, they can counteract the other side's propaganda. However, focusing on

the demonstration of violence can lead to simplification of facts and can lead to

propaganda.

Source: Rudenko & Kharkov (2023), Tkhorzhevska (2023)

An important trend may be the use of ‘hate

speech’. It is widespread in public and private

life, and there are many discussions about

whether it is possible to regulate this issue in law.

In a broad sense, hate speech means any

expression that denies the existence of the

principle of equality of all people. Such a

construct can describe and hierarchically

compare different groups of people and evaluate

their personal qualities based on their

membership in one group or another. Negative

stereotypes or prejudices can become the main

underlying hate speech (Nilsen, 2014). The latter

are spread to justify discrimination, most often

ethnic or ‘racial’ (Figure 1).

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Figure 1. Elements of ‘hate speech’

Source: Nilsen (2014), Said-Hung, Montero-Díaz & Sánchez-Esparza (2023).

The main targets of such rhetoric may be groups

of people, including ethnic groups, residents of

certain territories or regions, internally displaced

persons, migrants without official documents,

drug or alcohol addicts, people with disabilities,

representatives of certain religious groups and

representatives of certain professions, which may

be ambiguously treated by society. In particular,

messages containing hate speech may use

stereotypical names for social groups, such as

Gypsies rather than Roma, Jews rather than Jews.

This problem can be particularly acute in times

of global challenges or conflict (Said-Hung et al.,

2023).

For example, in Ukraine, many people have had

to leave their homes and become displaced, and

are more vulnerable and may be affected by

various media headlines on displacement or

refugee issues (Skurtul, 2023). In some contexts,

the use of IDPs, displaced persons instead of

Ukrainians, especially in topics related to their

stay abroad, can be vulnerable. In particular, the

news item titled ‘An IDP-coloniser detained in

Lviv region’ has a negative connotation. In this

context, journalists should find a line when it is

really necessary to emphasise that a person is an

IDP. When it does not play a significant role in

the text, it is not necessary to focus on such

details. Nevertheless, it is worth noting that hate

speech can take several forms (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Forms of ‘hate speech’

Source: Author’s development

Not facts, but rumours

about social groups Language clichés Discriminatory

broadcasting

Stereotypical names

Emotions of fear, anger,

hatred

Calls for violence

•An incorrect word

was used

accidentally and

unintentionally

Initial

•Deliberate repetition of

several stereotypical

clichés and incorrect

theses

Average

•The message

contains some hate

speech

Hard

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Thus, the use of hate speech elements may affect

the professional activities of journalists. They

should adhere to the Code of Ethics for Ukrainian

Journalists. It is also worth remembering that

crimes are committed by criminals, and not

focusing on social status. Special attention in the

work of journalists should be paid to the

competent use of the potential of social networks

and messengers, as these areas of cooperation

with the public are extremely difficult to regulate

through censorship or other actions of state

authorities. The experience of the Russian-

Ukrainian war has demonstrated that Facebook,

X (formerly Twitter), Instagrem, TikTok,

messengers (primarily Telegram, which is

popular in Ukraine) can become platforms for the

rapid dissemination of information.

The ability to communicate easily, show images

of destruction and casualties, and avoid

unnecessary expert opinions and judgements

imposed by media holdings, make it possible to

show the real face of war without embellishment

(Kostrubitska, 2022). Due to the efficiency and

close integration of digital technologies into

everyday life, information can be updated in real

time, and the audience will grow exponentially.

This has a tangible advantage - the ability to

demonstrate the reality of military operations and

the associated deprivation, pain and suffering.

Moreover, this demonstration will be served

directly to viewers/followers, without

unnecessary censorship in most cases. However,

the use of social media in journalism can also

become a powerful source of disinformation.

Caught in the crossfire of disinformation, the

audience on social media faces a difficult choice

of trust/distrust. The situation is further

complicated by paid-for content, the use of a

huge number of bots that spread the desired

opinions across the web, and the purchase of

previously trusted accounts, which increase the

risks to journalistic work. Given the possible

scale of the problem, researchers believe that

modern society lives in a ‘post-truth’ era, in

which additional skills are required to detect

deception. Among them is fact-checking, the

ability to verify and analyse the information

received. Perhaps one of the tasks of conflict-

sensitive journalism is to facilitate this sector of

work: journalists should independently check the

materials for their relevance to reality before

publishing them, making it easier for the public

to identify false information.

There is also a popular opinion among

researchers that journalists should understand the

crucial role of journalism during military

operations (Kostrubitska, 2022). It is argued that

in times of war, simply working to present

information objectively or to cover opposing

views is not enough, as such activities can lead to

a deeper escalation and trigger new rounds of

violence. Journalists in times of war are required

to have more information about the root causes

of conflicts, the process of conflict emergence,

development and termination, as well as to be

aware of the cases in which wars end and the

ways in which such scenarios can be realised.

Researchers acknowledge that conflict-sensitive

journalism should be based on the understanding

that the problem of war in the modern world is

beyond the scope of any situation and has a

fundamental basis that needs to be critically

examined (Kostrubitska, 2022).

Therefore, when implementing the concept of

conflict-sensitive journalism, there is a need to

use facts that take into account broader contexts,

i.e., demonstrate a holistic picture of the larger

whole based on specific facts and stories that

have become a complex matrix of the military

present, which is constantly changing and

transforming. Conflict-sensitive journalism

should carry out the process of uniting society in

times of war, responding to the spread of

disinformation and deliberate hostility

(Kostrubitska, 2022). According to current

opinions in the scientific literature, even in times

of military danger, journalists should provide the

public with opportunities for political assessment

of military realities and the consequences of war.

The findings demonstrated that modern conflict-

sensitive journalism plays an important role in

covering military events, informing society about

the causes and consequences of wars, and taking

an objective approach to reporting. At the same

time, journalists should not turn into preachers of

peace, but rather act as neutral intermediaries

who possess and transmit objective information

(Martynenko et al., 2023). Similarly, media

outlets should not be subject to harassment or

restrictions, but should follow the usual standards

of operation that have guaranteed high quality

work in peacetime.

For this reason, there is no need to impose

additional restrictions on journalistic activity in

times of war. On the other hand, it is worth noting

the opinions of researchers that the objectivity of

taking into account all points of view during

wartime is a complex and partially unsolvable

problem (Rudenko & Kharkov, 2023). The vivid

example of Russian propaganda has

demonstrated that such estimates are much closer

to reality, as the free dissemination of biased and

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fake information will turn journalistic work into

a constant provocation of conflict. Obviously,

such methods of work are not acceptable for

conflict-sensitive journalism. The main trends in

the development of journalism in Ukraine are

covered by Karpchuk & Makar (2023) and

Starkova & Yaresko (2020). Zhytnikova (2023)

describes the communication capabilities of

journalists in the era of war. The phenomenon of

cultural journalism and its development is

described in detail in a comprehensive study by

Silva (2016). This author described the main

models, practical solutions and opportunities of

this area of journalism.

Analysis of journalistic work in the media point

out that there may be several possible options for

journalists in times of open war. First of all, it is

about the possibility of journalists to accelerate

the adoption of necessary political decisions by

simultaneously drawing attention to the problem

on many information resources. The reverse

process is also likely, when the media can make

it difficult to implement planned decisions,

achieve political goals due to the degree of

emotional assessment of the situation or even

disclose plans for military operations (Vasilenko,

2021).

The example of the overly active PR of the

counter-offensive of Ukrainian troops in 2023

clearly demonstrated the short-sightedness of

journalists and experts, which led to the spread of

aggression, scepticism and pessimism in

Ukrainian society (Derviş, 2023). Thirdly,

journalistic work can influence the formation of

the political agenda (Kostrubitska, 2022).

Understanding these options will allow experts to

develop and formulate common standards for the

presentation of events during martial law in the

media. There is also a need for such principles to

be enshrined at the state level in an appropriate

administrative and legal act. However, given the

changing situation and the active integration of

new digital opportunities for disseminating

information, such initiatives should be constantly

adjusted to take into account the emergence of

new practices that are detrimental to real

journalistic work.

The findings also highlighted that hate speech

can play an important role in modern journalism,

which modern journalists can use both

accidentally and intentionally. According to

Baider & Constantinou (2020), racism in the

linguistic framework is shaped by socio-cultural

changes and contexts. In particular, preliminary

comparisons of social media journalism about

Greek Cypriots and Greek online data showed

that the two communities use different means to

express their hostility towards each other, and

that Greek messages may be more offensive. The

findings are also consistent with Johnson,

Thomas & Kelling (2020), who found that

ethnicity can be an important sensitivity and

resource for hate speech. Other studies also

confirm that the existence of hate speech

concepts is an important challenge.

In particular, based on the analysis of Spanish

messages, it was determined that inappropriate

translation of certain ethnic phrases can serve as

a valid reason for the use of certain hate speech

constructs. At the same time, contemporary

scholars also agree that modern digital

technologies have changed the way journalism is

conducted. Contemporary scholars also identify

the significant impact of these digital

technologies, including multimedia for better

audience outreach (Antonopoulos et al., 2020;

Salaverría, 2019). However, according to

Vasilenko (2021), new professional journalism

in Ukraine has every opportunity to develop only

if there is a public demand for it, i.e. joint efforts

of scholars and practitioners are important to

inform readers, viewers, listeners about new

methods of presenting material and test them in

modern online media.

Conclusions

Therefore, conflict-sensitive journalism is an

important tool for organising journalistic

activities during military conflicts. In particular,

for objective coverage of events, it is

recommended to avoid certain aspects. First of

all, it is about rejecting the idea of a ‘just’ war,

being careful in assessing the opinions and views

of different segments of the population regarding

the war, the importance of not falling into the trap

of propaganda and not becoming a propagandist

yourself, focusing on the coverage of the process

in assessments, demonstrating the interests and

concerns of the warring parties, avoiding the

understanding of war as a concept of struggle for

the same ideas. An important aspect of working

in conflict-sensitive journalism is avoiding the

use of ‘hate speech’. There are no legislative

mechanisms to regulate its use, so the existence

of such a construct makes it possible to

characterise events and individuals with elements

of denial of the principle of equality of all people.

As a rule, negative stereotypes, which are the

basis for discrimination, including racial

discrimination, become the basic elements of

hate speech.

Volume 13 - Issue 76

/ April 2024

363

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original source is cited.

Another important issue is the integration of

modern social media into journalism. The

experience of the Russian-Ukrainian war has

demonstrated that online platforms have become

platforms for the rapid dissemination of

information. This provides conflict-sensitive

journalism with an important advantage - the

ability to demonstrate the real consequences of

the war, which will somehow contribute to a

negative perception of the war. Moreover, this

demonstration will be presented directly to

viewers/subscribers, without unnecessary

censorship in most cases. At the same time, there

is a need for in-depth fact-checking, as the

availability of certain information, the spread of

bots, the purchase of accounts, etc. can introduce

disinformation. In such circumstances, a

journalist can turn into a mediator who performs

part of the tasks of combating propaganda.

It is important that journalistic work should not

be seen as entertainment or a selfish practice.

Due to its significant impact on decision-making,

conflict-sensitive journalism should adhere to

ethical principles of work, which can be

enshrined in relevant regulations. However, the

introduction of censorship in the coverage of

modern warfare is ineffective, as it is impossible

to block all channels of information

dissemination, and providing truthful

information is a better option than silencing

tangible problems.

However, this study also opens up new directions

for further research. In particular, it is important

to conduct an empirical study that would confirm

the effectiveness of the implementation of

individual components and principles of conflict-

sensitive journalism during the war.

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