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DOI: https://doi.org/10.34069/AI/2023.71.11.18

How to Cite:

Consideration of the relationship between the

Sultanate of Brunei Darussalam and the USA is

caused by the fact that historically the policy and

diplomacy of the USA in Southeast Asia was

determined by the geopolitical interests of

PhD in History, Associate Professor of History Department of History, Petro Mohyla Black Sea National University Mykolaiv,

Washington in this region first, attention was

paid to supporting free transport routes across the

South China Sea, which gave access to the

markets of the region. Secondly, the USA made

every effort to contain the spread of communist

ideas in the region, which were ideological

opponents of America's political system. To this

end, in the second half of the twentieth century.

The United States actively intervened in the

politico-military conflicts that erupted in the

region. Washington supported France in the

Indochina War and was directly involved in the

(Parameswaran, 2019a; Parameswaran, 2019b;

Parameswaran, 2018). Brunei is among the states

that are the backbone of the USA in the region.

This study aims to analyze and systematize the

major aspects of the relationship between the

USA and the Sultanate of Brunei Darussalam at

the beginning of the 21st century (Omar, 2018).

As for the study of the problem, it is reasonable

to divide the works devoted to this problem into

three main groups: works of Ukrainian

In the forthcoming sections of this article, we

delve into a comprehensive exploration of the

diplomatic relations between the United States

and Brunei Darussalam. The second section,

"Theoretical Framework and Literature Review,"

critically analyzes existing literature on this

subject. Despite the absence of specific scientific

works addressing this relationship, we draw

insights from broader studies, especially those by

and the specific case of Brunei. This section lays

the foundation for understanding the context in

which the U.S.-Brunei relationship evolves.

The subsequent section, "Research Design and

Methods," unveils the methodology applied in

this study. Here, we present hypotheses

exploring the nature of U.S. involvement in

international relations, emphasizing geopolitical

interests, attempts at regional hegemony, and

By integrating historical and political science

approaches, we adopt a systematic, ideological

pluralism, and dialectical understanding of the

historical process. This methodological fusion

allows us to assess international relations'

nuances, emphasizing the importance of

observation, participant observation, content

These methodological choices, rooted in a

multidisciplinary approach, enable us to provide

a nuanced and comprehensive analysis of the

diplomatic interactions at different levels

between these two nations.

It should be noted that no scientific works, which

would reveal any aspect of this topic during this

articles are devoted to an in-depth analysis of

USA policy strategy in the region, respectively,

the place of their relations with Brunei.

The issue was analyzed in the context of the

overall US policy towards Southeast Asia. The

peculiarities, the purpose of the policy and its

transformation under different administrations

and changing paradigms of geopolitical realities

were disclosed. Thus, the relationship with

relationship between the United States of

America and Brunei Darussalam were written by

Ukrainian researchers. They have analyzed in

detail and revealed some aspects of the history

and socio-political processes in Brunei, which

determined the basis of US policy in the region.

At the same time, the issue of diplomatic

relations between the United States and Brunei

Darussalam was not a sphere of their professional

interests. Therefore, they touched on this issue

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historical period in Russia either.

Representatives of the third segment are studies

by Asian scholars (King & Druce, 2022; Omar,

2018). Graham (2015) highlighted the

historiographical controversy over important

events, personalities, and developments in

Brunei. Hang Nguyen explored the Obama

Weatherbee (2008) has analyzed the efforts of

Southeast Asian states to collectively adapt in the

process of building an ASEAN community to the

challenges of traditional internal regional

security issues. ASEAN is the Association of

Southeast Asian Nations, which was formed on

August 8, 1967 in Bangkok, while the

finalization did not occur until 1976 on the island

of Bali. The ASEAN member states acted with

common sense pragmatism, seeking to partially

The sources of the study were statements and

directives from U.S. and Brunei leaders,

presidential speeches, articles in periodicals, and

materials from government websites.

Hypotheses

During the study a number of hypotheses were

The hypotheses were formulated based on a

careful consideration of the study's objectives

and research questions. For instance, the first

hypothesis posits that U.S. international relations

are primarily guided by geopolitical interests,

with the exception of mutually beneficial

relations when aligned with the partner state's

political and economic course.

Data Analysis

analysis. This methodological approach

facilitated a nuanced exploration of the data,

incorporating both qualitative and quantitative

dimensions, contributing to the robustness of the

study's findings.

The study is anchored in the principle of

to international relations.

Observational methods, including instrumental

observation with technical means and participant

observation, were incorporated, drawing on

insights from diplomatic and political

experiences. The study incorporates content

analysis and event analysis, aligning with the

methodologies used by notable researchers such

as E. Azar in the analysis of international

documents, and modeling, provides a robust

framework for investigating diplomatic contacts

between Brunei and the United States at various

levels.

Mutually beneficial relations are possible only if

the partner state supports the political and

economic course of the states. The next

hypothesis is to consider U.S. attempts to

establish its geopolitical hegemony in the region

region by various methods. The fifth hypothesis

is that the US seeks to establish mutually

beneficial cooperation with Brunei, without

preventing geopolitical rivals from establishing

contacts and connections in the region. The sixth

hypothesis indicates that the U.S. is increasingly

active in the struggle for raw materials and

markets.

In the process of the implementation of this

is one of the basic principles of the study of

history (Shakun, 2022; Maraieva, 2022). The

basic methods of historical study were the

following: systematic approach, ideological

pluralism, dialectical understanding of the

historical process, as well as the problem-

chronological method. Due to the fact that the

political processes taking place at the global and

regional level have a certain specificity and differ

from the socio-political relations, which are

limited to the framework of individual states. In

this case, the method of observation plays a great

role. The researcher first observes a process and

the tendency of its development and only then

makes an assessment. Specialists are

increasingly resorting to instrumental

observation, which is carried out with the help of

are those that are made on the basis of one's own

diplomatic and political experience (Shakun,

2022). To this end, the study of memoirs of

various political figures is carried out. Also, the

method of content analysis and event analysis

was applied, which consists in tracing the

dynamics of events in the international arena to

determine the main trends in the political

situation in individual countries, regions and the

world as a whole. American researcher E. Azar

sciences. Because this study is performed in a

legal context, the main attention was paid to the

methods of research that are used in

jurisprudence. Among them the analysis of

theoretical and normative-legal sources;

comparison; generalization; analysis of

documents; modeling. We should also note that

cooperation between the countries is based on

diplomatic contacts. Between Brunei and the

United States, they took place at different levels.

government agencies; assesses visits of lower-

level government officials.

Before analyzing the relations between Brunei

and the United States, it is necessary to

enforce the legal norms on the basis of the

existing norms and within the framework of

relevant international treaties. Norms of

international law are usually divided into

imperative and dispositive. A peremptory norm

of international law is a norm accepted and

recognized by the international community, from

which no deviation is permitted. Imperative

norms, for example, are the principles of

international law. Dispositive norms are rules of

in turn, influences national laws, and this

influence is constantly increasing, for example,

ensuring fundamental human rights. The rules of

international law guide Brunei Darussalam, a

Southeast Asian state on the northwestern island

of Kalimantan, in its foreign policy. Notably, the

island is divided between Brunei, Malaysia and

Indonesia, while Brunei itself is divided into two

parts by the territory of Malaysia. The word

"Darussalam" means the abode of peace, the

Commerce and Navigation, which has been in

force since 1850. For 96 years (1888-1984)

Brunei was under the protectorate of Great

Britain, a U.S. ally in two world wars. On the day

of the Sultanate's declaration of independence

(January 1, 1984), the United States opened an

embassy in the center of Brunei's capital, Bandar-

Seri Begawan. On March 10, 1984, the Brunei

Embassy was opened in the District of Columbia

and diplomatic relations were established

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Therefore, it should be noted that by the

beginning of the 2000s, diplomatic relations had

been less than 20 years old and were in their

infancy. This is evidenced by the fact that on

November 15-16, 2000, President B. Clinton of

the United States visited Brunei's capital with his

first presidential visit and participated in the

which is formed on the basis of civilization, are

directly opposite international associations.

Some researchers point out that one of the

objectives of APEC is to unify the region by

Western standards and turn it into a single market

of goods and services in the interests of the

United States, while the goal of ASEAN is to

preserve national and regional identity and

economic independence. At the same time, it

should be emphasized that both organizations are

Sultan of Brunei and the King of Malaysia to the

United States took place in 2002. The delegation

was received by President Bush in Washington.

This visit was a milestone in the development of

bilateral relations and focused primarily on trade

and economic aspects and the United States

committed to promoting trade and investment in

ASEAN countries, including Brunei (Gorodnia,

2018, p. 109). In 2002, former Secretary of State

Colin Powell made an official visit to the

known that during this period, Brunei sent cadets

to U.S. military academies, cooperated in

maritime security and coordination of

humanitarian aid and disaster relief. Meanwhile,

military cooperation between the US and Brunei

dates back to November 29, 1994, when a

Memorandum of Understanding on Military and

Defense Cooperation was signed. The countries

began a dialogue with the formation of joint

training programs, and then other forms of

participate in joint military exercises with the

U.S. military (Gorodnia, 2014, p. 101). In July

2011, Brunei's energy minister and minister of

foreign affairs and trade visited the United States

to expand energy cooperation between the two

countries, where officials met with a number of

U.S. companies representing the oil and gas

projects, and American franchises and brands

were gradually opened in Brunei. This further

strengthened the bilateral relationship and

marked a new milestone in the strategic

partnership between the two countries. A wide

range of bilateral, regional and global issues of

common interest were addressed. They included

security, combating terrorism, economic

development, particularly the strengthening of

commercial and investment ties and the

Anniversary of the Royal Brunei Armed Forces

and the BRIDEX international defense

exhibition. At the same time, the next visit of the

Brunei delegation headed by the Sultan to the

United States took place only on March 12, 2013,

actually 11 years after the first visit.

(U.S. DEPARTMENT OF STATE, 2011). This

interruption can be viewed both negatively and

positively: if viewed from a negative perspective,

one can assume that the U.S. is not strongly

there are intensive diplomatic contacts at a lower

level. Therefore, a separate assessment should be

made of the circumstances that led to the long

interruption of interstate visits at the highest

level. One can assume that the U.S. high-level

visit was possible because Brunei presided over

ASEAN in 2013 (Pidbereznykh, 2018). Overall,

this year can be characterized by an intense

increase in diplomatic activity. Secretary of State

John Kerry visited the country for several

received its most vigorous development in recent

decades, was reaffirmed. Particular emphasis

was placed on the development of mutually

beneficial projects. At the same time, Obama

praised His Majesty's leadership on maritime

issues in the APEC and the promotion of English

language learning among young people, which

process in Brunei and the spread of Western

values that are not typical of the traditional

culture of the country. On the one hand, as noted

above, it can strengthen trade relations, and on

the other hand, it can strengthen the processes of

globalization, which can destroy the identity of

the country and its traditional values. Therefore,

the U.S. position can be assessed as a desire to

spread its cultural influence, unifying it

throughout the world under its standards,

human life, world. It is noteworthy that the issue

of expanding the scope of the English language

in the region has been discussed before, during

Clinton's visit to Brunei in September 2012. Even

a special project was developed to strengthen the

role of this language in the region. It should be

noted that similar trends of spreading the

influence of Western values are also typical for

Ukraine and may pose a threat to the cultural

identity of the country and the development of

region due to the growing confrontation between

global geopolitical players: the United States and

China. Increasing tensions between these

countries are occurring in all spheres of activity.

Researchers believe that China is expanding into

the region, using a variety of means, from

outright pressure to "soft power," which serves to

attract more and more states in the region to its

side. Therefore, the relationship between the U.S.

and Brunei, which Washington seeks to

small in area but wealthy and economically

influential, is of great interest to both the U.S. and

China. Therefore, the state is forced to maneuver

on the diplomatic front, ensuring the protection

of its national interests: on the one hand, it

appeals to the United States for support, and on

the other hand, it tries to establish close economic

strengthening markets, developing human

resources and promoting the development of

small and medium-sized enterprises to support

the economy. The movement toward global

integration was seen as an opportunity to

improve the standard of living and social well-

being of the population. An ambitious Agenda

for Economic Modernization was introduced to

help the economy leverage advances in

information technology to increase productivity

build sound education management through a

collaborative educational process in the region.

New information and communication

technologies enabled the development of

networks to extend health services to a wider

population, and to address major health issues.

Therefore, Brunei, under the diplomatic

influence of the U.S., deliberately became

involved in the processes of globalization.

protect and promote national interests, which are

to support sovereignty and territorial integrity

preserve political, cultural and religious identity;

promote regional and global peace, security,

prosperity, stability, welfare, economic and

social well-being of citizens (Gorodnia, 2011).

At the same time the tendencies of the USA

directed to unification, globalization, and

establishment of a new world order, which is in

line with neoliberal values and does not provide

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American culture and values as the standard of

democracy and freedom. This process of

globalization provides the erasure of national and

establishment of a single standard (Maraieva,

2022). It is noted that globalization has become

so total that it is accepted as an objective reality

in the U.S. there is a reverse process of active

influence of Chinese and Asian culture in

general. Therefore, this process is far from

ambiguous and multidimensional. Therefore, we

should express some disagreement with the

opinion of researchers who believe that the U.S.

seeks to maintain the cultural diversity of the

modern world and express disagreement with the

view that there is only the American scenario of

globalization (U.S. Indo-Pacific Command,

the category of superpowers.

The economic ties between the United States and

Brunei are underscored by robust trade

agreements, strategic investment partnerships,

and joint ventures. Trade between the two

nations has flourished, with mutual benefits

economic well-being of the nations involved.

In the realm of security and defense, the U.S. and

Brunei engage in joint efforts aimed at ensuring

regional and global stability. Military alliances,

intelligence sharing, and counterterrorism

initiatives are central to their collaborative

approach. Notable security agreements and joint

military exercises serve as tangible evidence of

the depth of cooperation, demonstrating a

Cultural and educational exchanges form a vital

component of U.S.-Brunei relations. Various

programs promote cultural understanding,

facilitate language exchange initiatives, and

establish educational partnerships. These

exchanges play a crucial role in fostering mutual

understanding between the people of the United

The economic implications of U.S.-Brunei

cooperation are profound, influencing the growth

of industries, employment rates, and overall

economic stability in both countries.

Collaborative efforts have spurred innovation,

technological advancements, and increased

market access, leading to enhanced economic

prosperity. However, challenges may arise, and

it is crucial to address potential areas requiring

of both nations. An evaluation of this cooperation

within the broader geopolitical landscape reveals

how it aligns with each country's strategic

interests. This alignment is critical in navigating

diplomatic ties that strengthen the geopolitical

position of both parties.

Exploring the cultural implications of U.S.-

Brunei cooperation unveils the influence of

assessment is essential to understand and address

the implications for both nations.

U.S.-Brunei cooperation plays a role in the larger

geopolitical context, particularly within the

competition between global superpowers. Both

countries navigate this landscape, seeking to

maximize their geopolitical influence.

Understanding the impact of this cooperation on

their respective spheres of influence is crucial in

Acknowledging varying perspectives on U.S.

globalization, it is essential to consider

arguments both for and against the idea that the

U.S. seeks to maintain cultural diversity. A

nuanced perspective is crucial in understanding

the influence of American and other cultural

forces in the global arena. This reconciliation of

To sum up, during the study period, the United

States and Brunei have cooperated closely in

many areas, most notably joint integration

alliances, defense programs, trade and economic

activities, and humanitarian missions. It is

necessary to state that diplomatic relations

between the Sultanate of Brunei Darussalam and

the United States have deep historical roots and

during the period under study were conducted at

meetings of heads of foreign ministries and other

government officials of the highest rank.

Cooperation between the states in the first two

decades of the XXI century has been

multidirectional. The role of English as a factor

in spreading U.S. influence is emphasized. Let us

note that other countries resort to similar tactics,

which by introducing the language of their

country spread its influence in many aspects and

first seek to introduce their culture. Therefore,

of cooperation were analyzed, and it was found

that the economy, defense, the fight against

terrorism and the cultural field in which the

United States encourages the strengthening of the

role of English in Brunei. The main vectors of

cooperation, which are due to global and regional

geopolitical competition and the desire of the

U.S. to acquire an ally in the region, were

revealed. Diplomatic contacts at various levels

have been covered in detail and the scope and

hypotheses of the study, the hypothesis that in

building international relations, the U.S.

primarily seeks to protect its interests, in

principle, this is natural for any state and is

especially characteristic of those countries that

are superpowers, was largely confirmed.

Therefore, mutually beneficial relations are the

displacement of geopolitical competitors. The

main method of U.S. domination is to support

loyal governments, and if they do not support the

U.S. policy, attempts are made to change the

regime in one way or another. Now there is a

struggle between Washington and its competitors

for raw materials and markets. As for

cooperation with Brunei, it is more likely to be

mutually beneficial, since the government

supports the political and economic course of the

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