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DOI: https://doi.org/10.34069/AI/2023.70.10.12
How to Cite:
Shkvorchenko, N., Sytenka, O., Redka, I., Petlyuchenko, N., & Mizetska, V. (2023). Agonal concepts and communicative strategies
in European and Ukrainian media discourses after February, 24. Amazonia Investiga, 12(70), 134-145.
https://doi.org/10.34069/AI/2023.70.10.12
Agonal concepts and communicative strategies in European and
Ukrainian media discourses after February, 24
Агональні концепти та комунікативні стратегії в європейському та українському
медіадискурсах після 24 лютого
Received: September 1, 2023 Accepted: October 23, 2023
Written by:
Nataliia Shkvorchenko1
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7146-7244
Olena Sytenka2
https://orcid.org/0009-0004-7000-8910
Inna Redka3
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3088-9651
Nataliya Petlyuchenko4
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8089-2947
Vira Mizetska5
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8295-526X
Abstract
The article is devoted to the issue of agonal
concepts and strategic communications as a result
of the full-scale invasion of the Russian Federation.
Considering the ongoing war, it is considered
necessary to investigate the Ukrainian and
European media discourse and strategic
communications as a system consisting of invariant
and variable components that can be projected in
mass media messages, as well as the transformation
of such a system. The purpose of the research is to
carry out a comprehensive analysis of agonal
concepts and communication strategies in European
and Ukrainian media discourse after February 2022.
The research methodology is the following
methods: content analysis method, discourse
analysis method, critical discourse analysis method,
historical analysis method, cross-method - cultural
comparative analysis, and sociological method.
This thematic study examines the agonal concepts
and strategies of communication in European and
Ukrainian media discourses after February 2022. It
1
Doctor of Philological Sciences, Associate Professor Head of the Department of Romance and Germanic Languages and Foreign
Language Teaching International Humanitarian University Odesa, Ukraine.
2
Candidate of Philological Sciences, Associate Professor of the Department of English Philology and Philosophy of Language of
Kyiv National Linguistic University, Ukraine.
3
Candidate of Philological Sciences, Associate Professor of the Department of English Philology and Philosophy of Language of
Kyiv National Linguistic University, Ukraine.
4
Doctor of Philological Sciences, Professor, Professor of the Department of Foreign Languages, Odesa National Academy of Music
named after A.V. Nezhdanova, Ukraine.
5
Doctor of Philology, Professor, The head of the department of professional communication in foreign languages of the International
Humanitarian University, Ukraine.
Shkvorchenko, N., Sytenka, O., Redka, I., Petlyuchenko, N., Mizetska, V. / Volume 12 - Issue 70: 134-145 / October, 2023
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is investigated which strategies prevail in the
Ukrainian and European media fields. The study
shows how political leaders and the media use
different levels of engagement, commentary, and
content to demonstrate strength, unity, and stability
during times of significant international tension.
Attention was also drawn to how messages from the
Russian Federation affect the international agenda.
It is concluded that the strategic use of
communication can become a powerful tool in the
conditions of international crises.
Keywords: agonal concepts, concept, commutative
strategies, media discourse, political discourse.
Introduction
After Russia's full-scale invasion of Ukraine on
the morning of February 24, 2022,
communication becomes a crucial tool for
managing the situation on the ground and
shaping public opinion. Social networks, mass
media, and the statements of politicians play a
necessary role in promoting crisis
communication.
Narratives and communication from the
government of Ukraine, Russia, and the world
call for research into the linguistic features of the
presentation of this or that material. Also, more
and more attention is paid to the speech acts used
by the leaders of the states after February 24,
2022, including President Zelensky’s speech acts
in his communication on Twitter during the crisis
situation in Ukraine at the beginning of the war.
The object of the research is agonal concepts and
communication strategies in the European and
Ukrainian media discourse after the full-scale
invasion.
To study the agonal concepts and communication
strategies in European and communication media
discourses after the beginning of the war, the
following questions were asked:
− What communication strategies are used in
European and Ukrainian media discourses
after the war?
− What speech acts are used in communication
in the European and Ukrainian media space,
and what are the consequences of their use?
− What role, if any, do intercultural factors
play in communication?
Because in the modern world, media discourse
plays a significant role in the formation of public
perceptions and the perception of various
concepts, an important topic that is actively
discussed in the European and Ukrainian media
is the topic of agonal concepts - concepts related
to struggle, rivalry, and conflicts During the
research, the task was set to test three key
hypotheses.
The first hypothesis is that the consideration of
agonal concepts and communication strategies
depends on the context: political, socio-cultural,
economic, etc.
The second hypothesis is that the media use
linguistic strategies to enhance or reduce the
impact of agonal events to form certain images
that are understandable for perception.
The third hypothesis is based on cultural
characteristics. In particular, it is assumed that
different cultural contexts in Europe and Ukraine
can determine the specific features of agonal
concepts in the media.
The research on agonistic concepts and
communicative strategies in European and
Ukrainian media discourses post-February 24,
2022, employs a diverse range of qualitative and
quantitative research methods:
Content Analysis: used to systematically study
the content of media messages, analyzing texts,
publications, audio, and video contexts to
identify patterns, themes, and prevalence in
media representation of agonistic concepts.
Discourse Analysis: iInvestigates how language
constructs and reflects social reality, focusing on
linguistic structures, rhetoric, and framing
techniques in media texts to understand how
agonistic concepts are linguistically constructed
and transmitted.
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Critical Discourse Analysis: applied to analyze
power relations and ideology in media discourse,
emphasizing how language is used to reproduce
or challenge social structures and power
dynamics related to agonistic concepts.
Historical Analysis: traces the historical
evolution of media discourse in the context of the
full-scale invasion and operation in Ukraine
since 2014, studying archival media content over
time to identify changes and persistence in the
representation of agonistic concepts.
Cross-Cultural Comparative Analysis: compares
media discourses from European and Ukrainian
sources, highlighting common characteristics
and differences to understand how agonistic
concepts are formulated and discussed in
different cultural and media contexts.
Sociological Method: generalizes the prevalence
of certain discourses and views among different
social groups, providing a quantitative
assessment of public opinion, attitudes, and
awareness of agonistic concepts in media
discourse.
Social Network Analysis: analyzes social
networks, including platforms like Twitter,
Facebook, and Instagram, to explore how
agonistic concepts are discussed, shared, and
debated online. This includes the analysis of user
content, comments, and interactions.
The study on agonal concepts and
communication strategies in European and
Ukrainian media discourses yields several
noteworthy implications:
Tools Employed in Media Discourses:
The identified tools, including appeals to
emotions, messenger control, publication
control, propaganda, and disinformation,
indicate the strategic nature of media
communication. Recognizing and understanding
these tools are essential for comprehending the
dynamics of information dissemination.
Speech Acts and Political Priorities:
Political leaders consistently reference specific
topics in their communication strategies, aligning
with priorities and resonant themes to achieve
political objectives. This finding emphasizes the
deliberate use of language to shape public
opinion and consciousness.
Intercultural Factors in Communication:
The study underscores the significant role of
intercultural factors in communication. For
Russia, common history and culture with
Ukraine play a role, while Ukraine leverages
intercultural factors to emphasize identity and
independence. Cultural context influences how
information is transmitted and perceived,
highlighting the importance of understanding the
"spirit" of a country and its culture in shaping
effective communication.
Contextual Dependence of Agonal Concepts:
The confirmation that the consideration of agonal
concepts and communication strategies depends
on the contextual factors in a country—political,
socio-cultural, economic—underscores the
dynamic nature of media communication. This
implies that strategies need to be adapted to the
specific context in which they are applied.
Softening or Sharpening Perception through
Media:
The study validates that media communication is
instrumental in shaping public consciousness by
either softening or sharpening the perception of
agonal events. Linguistic strategies employed by
the media contribute to the formation of specific,
comprehensible images for the public,
influencing how events are perceived.
Cultural Context Impact on Agonal Concepts:
The study confirms that cultural context,
including historical and cultural characteristics,
significantly influences how agonal concepts are
presented and received in the media. This insight
emphasizes the need for culturally sensitive
communication strategies.
Moving forward, the study suggests the necessity
of exploring the specifics of propaganda use in
European and Ukrainian discourses and its
impact on public consciousness. This avenue of
research could provide deeper insights into the
dynamics of information dissemination and its
implications for societal perceptions.
Theoretical Framework or Literature Review
The following scholars paid attention to the study
of agonal concepts and communication strategies
in European and Ukrainian media discourses
during the war in Ukraine:
− The work of Larsson and Fanny Einarsson
(2023) analyzed social networks and the
message used by the President of Ukraine
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Zelenskyi in social networks. It was
concluded that President Volodymyr
Zelenskyy uses communication for
advocacy, informing, and influencing
others. In his communication, Zelenskyi
uses various speech acts, but the most
common speech act is an assertive speech
act. With the help of assertive speech acts,
Zelensky informs and reassures the
recipients of messages. The results and
analysis show that Zelensky tends to use
assertive speech acts and expressive speech
acts to convey information about the past
and present. Expressive speech acts often
include information about what has been
done or what support has been received, as
well as expressions of gratitude. Directive
and commissive speech acts are used to
influence the addressee, they are related to
future actions. The researcher's remarks and
generalizations are interesting because they
reflect the main messages that the high-
ranking official probably intended to
convey.
− Albatool Fahad Alyahya (2023) conducted a
critical analysis of world publications in the
context of information coverage. The author
noted in the attitude analysis that both
articles used all the elements of the attitude
subsystem to influence their readers'
opinions and attitudes, albeit with opposite
goals. It was concluded that both news
articles expressed both positive and negative
attitudes towards the invasion of Ukraine,
albeit in different ways. The Washington
Post mainly focused on the negative aspects
of the invasion and gave positive coverage
of the United States' response to the Russian
attack. In contrast, The Moscow Times
reported positive actions by both sides. A
study by Bozhuk (2022) aimed to investigate
the leading strategic communications and
strategic management in the context of war.
The author concluded that PR technologies
play an essential role in strategic
management. Cristian E. Guerrero-Castro
(2013), in his work, investigated strategic
communications in the field of defense. The
main conclusions of the author, with which
we agree, are that strategic communications
in the field of security and national defense
aim, within the framework of their mission
to support the national strategy, to achieve
deterrence, legitimacy, and freedom of
action in the international system.
− Juan Pablo Villar Garca,
Carlota Tarín Quirós, and Julio Blázquez
Soria (2021) identified strategic
communications as a key factor for hybrid
deals. Gery W. Ryan and H. Russell Bernard
(2000) examined the fundamental principles
for defining the agonal concepts and
communication strategies considered in this
study as theoretical foundations.
− Ivar Ekman and Per-Erik Nilsson (2023)
investigated the peculiarities of the
Ukrainian information front in the
conditions of war. The author investigated
the effect of "rallying around the flag" when
support for state institutions increases
dramatically during a crisis, and the voice
and messages of leaders carry more weight
than in peacetime. The widespread opinion
in society that Ukraine is waging a just war,
as well as the fact that Ukrainians perceive
the war as existential, gives communication
efforts, both domestically and abroad, a very
strong basis. Narrative lines generated by
this reality – how Ukraine fights not only for
itself but also for the future of the
international order and the protection of
democracy in general; how Ukraine
conducts a just and legal war, observing
international law - are understandable and
correspond to the facts existing on the
ground. However, the main challenge for
this narrative framework is that it must be
one that the respondents described as "true".
In addition to the research materials
analyzed in this report, the authors noted
several instances in which Ukrainian
communication contradicted the narrative:
when photos of dead Russian soldiers were
published early in the war when Ukraine's
report of a missile landing on Ukrainian
territory was untrue.
− A study by Chaban, Zhabotynska, and Knodt
(2023) challenged the main narratives about
Ukraine on Russian platforms. The authors
obtained results that demonstrate the
"behind-the-scenes mechanisms" which the
Russian propaganda media use to provide a
special emotionally colored perception
Ukrainians by russians.
− Kurnyshova's (2023) study explores the
relationship between resilience and agency
as two sides of the same coin, and discusses
how agency functions as a productive
negation in the sense that refusing to
compromise with the advancing Kremlin is
"Russian peace." Also interesting in our
opinion is the author's position regarding the
concept of regulatory agency, which
considers sustainability as a strategy of
relying on one's forces, which, at the same
time, due to its regulatory compatibility and
compliance with the principles of
democratic governance, opens promising
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ways for the final integration of Ukraine into
the Euro-Atlantic institutional and
normative structures as a state capable of
contributing to common security.
− Cornish, Lindley-French, and Yorke (2011)
questioned general statements about
strategic communications and national
strategies. At the same time,
Tbvănase Tasențe (2023) analyzed in detail
the online communications of world leaders
during the war in Ukraine. It was noted that
Joe Biden, Ursula von der Leyen, and Jens
Stoltenberg used a variety of means to
spread their messages - from press
conferences and video calls to social
networks and other digital platforms. It is
concluded that the communication strategies
of Joe Biden, Ursula von der Leyen, and Jens
Stoltenberg during the crisis in Ukraine had
a significant impact on the conflict. It is
impossible not to agree with these
conclusions because both the leaders who
condemn the war in Ukraine and the leaders
who deny supporting Ukraine influence the
course of the war and history.
− Benabid (2022) examined the
communication strategy in the war in
Ukraine and concluded that Ukraine's
strategy is supported by a narrative
communication process that emphasizes
storytelling. Being in a disadvantageous
position from a military point of view,
Ukraine demonstrates aggressiveness, even
vitality, which is surprising. At the same
time, Moscow continues to experiment,
looking for the optimal dosage of
communication to highlight the conflict, as
well as to strengthen its power inside the
country about its own population.
− Selvarajah and Fiorito (2023) investigated
the public's attitude towards the war in
Ukraine. The authors tested two hypotheses.
The first is that international newspaper
reports in the first five days of Russia's war
in Ukraine contributed to the International
Criminal Court announcing that it would
investigate credible allegations of Russian
war crimes in Ukraine. The validity of this
hypothesis was established by evaluating the
"accessibility effect" and the "applicability
effect" of the "media agenda" using
quantitative analysis and frame analysis.
Eight newspapers from four selected
countries published 30 news items linking
Russia to war crimes in Ukraine. The second
hypothesis that there may be a functional
relationship between the application of
international law in the ICC and coverage of
events in the international mass media was
also confirmed thanks to the obtained
results.
− Baylor (2022), in his work, compares two
opposite approaches to conducting
information warfare, which are used by
President Zelensky and Russian dictator
Putin. The president of Ukraine is directly
addressing world leaders with messages
about the current war situation, while the
leader of the aggressor country limits his
public appearances, preferring instead a non-
public company of disinformation. In the
opinion of the author, Ukraine is currently
defeating the enemy on the information
front.
− Ángel Moreno Rubio (2022) examined in
detail the discourse of the President of
Ukraine during the war. It is concluded that
Zelenskyi's discourse contributes to the
spread of the Ukrainian narrative and
achieves its goal of gaining international
support. Zelensky has recognized the means
of soft power and emotion in the Western
world and is using them to the best of his
ability to put pressure and sanctions on
Russian Federation. Without it, he would
have been defeated very quickly. It is
inappropriate to compare the media field in
the first months of the war and the media
field in the general duration of almost 2
years of the war, because it changes
dynamically.
− Yuskiv, Karpchuk, and Pelekh (2022)
researched the structure of strategic
communications during the war. The authors
consider strategic communications as a
system consisting of invariant and variable
components that can be projected in mass
media messages. The study analyzed the
messages of the Insider Ukraine telegram
channel for the first 100 days of the war and
found out that Ukraine's strategic
communications during the war consisted of
the following invariant components:
interactive communications of Ukraine,
operational communications of Ukraine,
non-operational communications of
Ukraine, operational and non-operational
communications with the Russian
Federation. Thanks to this study, the
structure of strategic communications in
general and during the first days of the war
in particular became clear.
− Horban (2015) analyzed the issue of
information warfare against Ukraine and the
means of its conduct. In the study, the
theoretical concept of information
aggression was determined using the
example of Russian interference in the
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internal affairs of Ukraine, and the methods
and tools of conducting information warfare
were considered. We agree with the author's
position regarding theoretical
generalizations and definitions of key
concepts.
− Denisyuk (2021) studied the impact of
propaganda and counter-propaganda in
detail. The author's main conclusions
concern ways of controlling propaganda. In
the opinion of the author, with which we
agree, to build a countermeasure strategy in
the information war, it is necessary to take
into account the experience of EU countries
in countering disinformation flows, and the
national information policy strategy should
provide for the use of a multi-level and
complex approach while paying attention to
indicators such as the development of
information infrastructure, the information
processing industry, compliance with the
rights and freedoms of citizens in the
information society.
− In the study of Tutar and Bağ (2023),
through critical discourse analysis, an
attempt was made to reveal the discourses of
two leaders with their implicit and
connotative meanings beyond their actual
meanings. Thus, the statements of Putin and
Zelensky were analyzed according to Van
Dijk's model of critical discourse analysis.
At the same time, in the reflection of the
rhetoric of each of the leaders in the media,
it can be seen that both sides pay attention to
each other's statements. In their speeches,
leaders follow tactics and strategies like
chess moves. At the same time, in his
patriotic discourse, Zelensky emphasizes
that the country's security can be ensured by
the loyalty of the entire people and soldiers.
We agree with the author's conclusions, as
they reflect the reality of the discourse, both
in Ukraine and Russia.
− Shkvorchenko, Cherniaieva, and
Petlyuchenko (2021) discovered the
quiestion of linguistic approaches and
modern communication technologies in
political discourses in Europe and the USA.
The study revealed that the primary
distinction between the political discourses
of Europe and the United States lies in the
modes and methods of communication, the
distribution formats, and the extensive
indicators of population inclusion in
communicative interactions within political
discourse.
− Parahonsky and Yavorska (2022) challenged
news coverage of war and peace. Romanova
(2022) investigated the question of how to
promote the involvement of European and
Ukrainian local and regional authorities in
the post-war reconstruction of Ukraine in the
context of properly constructed
communication. We believe that the
research data are crucial for understanding
the informational impact on war and post-
war reconstruction.
Methodology
The study of agonistic concepts and
communicative strategies in European and
Ukrainian media discourses after February 24,
2022, involves a combination of qualitative and
quantitative research methods.
In particular, the method of content analysis was
used to investigate issues of media discourse.
The purpose of using this method was a
systematic study of the content of media
messages. The applied use of this method is
found in the analysis of texts, publications, both
audio and video context, to understand and
identify patterns, themes, and prevalence of
discourses in the media field. Thanks to this
method, regularities and repetitions of themes,
frames, and language used in media
representation were revealed.
Using the method of discourse analysis, the
question of how language constructs and reflects
social reality was investigated. The essence of
this method is utilized to research the use of
language, including linguistic structures,
rhetoric, and framing techniques in media texts.
As a result of the application of this method, it
was investigated how agonal concepts are
linguistically constructed and transmitted in
media discourse.
The use of critical discourse analysis is applied
to the analysis of power relations and ideology in
media discourse. This method makes it possible
to focus attention on ways of using language to
reproduce or challenge social structures and
dynamic positions of power structures. With the
help of this method, it became possible to study
how media representations contribute to or
challenge existing power relations in the concept
of agonal concepts.
The method of historical analysis played an
equally important role in the research. In
particular, the purpose of this method was to
trace the historical evolution of media discourse
in the context of both the full-scale invasion and
the operation in Ukraine since 2014. The essence
of this method is the study of archival media
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content over time, to identify changes and
persistence in the representation of agonal
concepts. With the help of research using the
method of historical analysis, it became clear
how historical events and changes shape media
narratives.
The method of cross-cultural comparative
analysis helped to compare media discourses in
different cultural contexts and take into account
cultural differences. Thus, an analysis of media
content from European and Ukrainian sources
was carried out, and their common characteristics
and differences were revealed. With the help of
this method, an understanding of how agonal
concepts are formulated and discussed in
different cultural and media contexts is obtained.
The benefit of the sociological method was
intended to generalize the prevalence of certain
discourses and views among different social
groups. Thanks to this method, the quantitative
assessment of public opinion, attitude, and
awareness of agonal concepts in media discourse
was analyzed. In addition, an analysis of social
networks was carried out to study the discourse
on social network platforms. Including, but not
limited to, an analysis of user content, comments,
and interactions on platforms such as Twitter,
Facebook, and Instagram was conducted to
explore how agonal concepts are discussed,
shared, and debated online.
In the work, we aim to outline both theoretical
foundations and present a new theoretical basis.
With the help of a combination of theoretical
material and practical work, it became possible
to conduct a comprehensive study and
understanding of agonal concepts and
communicative strategies in European and
Ukrainian media discourses after February 24,
2022.
The choice of research methods in the study of
agonistic concepts and communicative strategies
in European and Ukrainian media discourses
after February 24, 2022, is justified based on the
specific objectives of the research:
Content Analysis:
Rationale: This method is chosen for its
systematic approach to studying the content of
media messages. It enables the analysis of texts,
publications, audio, and video contexts to
identify patterns, themes, and prevalence of
discourses in the media field.
Objective Alignment: Content analysis aligns
with the objective of revealing regularities and
repetitions of themes, frames, and language used
in media representation, providing a
comprehensive understanding of the content
landscape.
Discourse Analysis:
Rationale: This method is applied to investigate
how language constructs and reflects social
reality, encompassing linguistic structures,
rhetoric, and framing techniques in media texts.
Objective Alignment: Discourse analysis is apt
for exploring how agonal concepts are
linguistically constructed and transmitted in
media discourse, contributing to a nuanced
understanding of the role of language.
Critical Discourse Analysis:
Rationale: This method is employed to analyze
power relations and ideology in media discourse,
focusing on how language reproduces or
challenges social structures and dynamic power
positions.
Objective Alignment: Critical discourse analysis
is chosen to study how media representations
contribute to or challenge existing power
relations within the context of agonal concepts,
aligning with the research's aim to uncover the
influence of discourse on power dynamics.
Historical Analysis:
Rationale: This method traces the historical
evolution of media discourse, specifically in the
context of the full-scale invasion and the
operation in Ukraine since 2014.
Objective Alignment: Historical analysis is
essential for identifying changes and persistence
in the representation of agonal concepts over
time, contributing to a comprehensive
understanding of how historical events shape
media narratives.
Cross-Cultural Comparative Analysis:
Rationale: This method is chosen to compare
media discourses in different cultural contexts
and account for cultural differences.
Objective Alignment: Cross-cultural
comparative analysis facilitates the exploration
of how agonal concepts are formulated and
discussed in diverse cultural and media contexts,
enhancing the study's cross-cultural insights.
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Sociological Method:
Rationale: This method is employed to
generalize the prevalence of discourses among
different social groups, providing a quantitative
assessment of public opinion, attitudes, and
awareness.
Objective Alignment: The sociological method
aligns with the aim of analyzing public discourse
by quantitatively assessing opinions, attitudes,
and awareness related to agonal concepts, with a
specific focus on social network platforms.
Overall, the combination of these methods,
spanning qualitative and quantitative
approaches, allows for a thorough examination of
agonistic concepts and communicative strategies
in European and Ukrainian media discourses,
aligning with the research's dual focus on
theoretical foundations and practical insights.
Results and Discussion
Regarding the first task regarding
communication strategies used in European
and Ukrainian media discourses after the war:
Communication battles for influence take place
over narrative when competing or opposing
positions attempt to gain legitimacy and success
through narratives that favor them. The actors
here seek not so much to communicate around
supposedly verified facts but to appeal to
emotions and feed the audience with interpretive
models favorable to them. It is tempting to
assume that Russia, like any belligerent state, is
simply reworking the communication strategies
well documented and grouped under the term
"hybrid warfare" to achieve its goals. Such
strategies include deception, information and
psychological operations, social media,
audiovisual propaganda, and old Soviet methods
updated by Moscow, in particular, based on
theories of reflexive control. One caveat is that
these strategies are never easy to implement
because they target mixed audiences: the enemy,
the local population, the media, and international
public opinion. They also entail risks for the
communicator related to the intensity of media
coverage of the conflict, in terms of audience
and/or political costs (OECD portal, 2022).
In addition, the media, when covering crisis
situations, are considered both in the cycle and in
the content. The media are questioning the rules
of the game not only in traditional media
ecosystems (print and television) but also in state
and military control over information flows. It is
observed that continuous coverage of war
(rolling news) is no longer the prerogative of the
mainstream media. In an unprecedented
initiative, volunteer editors documented the
Russian invasion of Wikipedia as it unfolded,
even if it meant departing from the original goal
of the free encyclopedia.
There is a strategic demarcation of the scope of
topics. Mass media actually use framing
processes that involve selecting what is
considered relevant and provoking specific
interpretations by emphasizing only certain
aspects of a topic.
.
Since the 2010s, the Russian Federation has
shifted its communication strategy, recognizing
the significance of "soft power" tools. The
Kremlin has been actively working to regain
control over messages in audiovisual media,
investing steadily in social media to shape and
present its perspective on events, including the
causes, progression, and outcomes of various
conflicts (Nato Strategic Communications
Centre of Excellence, 2023).
After the beginning of the war in Ukraine
American social media also made an attampt to
curb the flow of fake news from Russian-
controlled media outlets. In a report published on
April 7, 2022, Meta (Facebook's parent
company) said it had taken action against a group
of hackers who were trying to spread false
information that Ukrainian forces had
surrendered. In addition, under Council
Regulation (EU) 2022/350 of March 1, 2022, the
EU Electronic Communications Office also
amended existing regulations. The new
regulation banned the broadcasting (and other
activities that contribute to the broadcasting) of
Russia Today and Sputnik TV channels. The ban
on content distribution, encompassing cable,
satellite, IP television, websites, and video-
sharing applications, applies to channels such as
RT - Russia Today (in English, UK, Germany,
France, and Spanish) and Sputnik.22. EU's
diplomatic head, Josep Borrell, justified the
decision by citing the Kremlin's systematic use of
information manipulation and disinformation as
an operational tool in its attack on Ukraine
(Council of Europe, 2023).
Therefore, the communication strategy takes into
account both challenges and pays attention to
possible obstacles. At the same time, it would be
fair to note that states form strategies anticipating
possible challenges and moves of rivals.
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Regarding the second question, about what
speech acts are used by communications in the
European and Ukrainian media space and what
are the consequences of their use:
It was possible to compare the most frequently
used keywords in the online speeches of three
world leaders. Simultaneously, it is observed that
leaders use different themes during the crisis;
there is very rarely a consensus on the direction
of communication.
Thus, Jens Stoltenberg's public speech focuses
on key words such as "support", "allies",
"security", "contribution", "defense", "war",
"invasion", "powerful", "NATO", etc. Joe
Biden's speech focused more on domestic policy
issues than on the crisis in Ukraine; the most
frequently used words are "inflation,"
"economy," "families," "jobs," "honor,"
"Americans," "prices," "taxes," etc. Ursula von
der Leyen focuses on topics such as "energy",
"sanctions", "solidarity", "fuel", "climate",
"fuel", "RePowerUE", "cooperation", "the
future", etc.
Zelenskyi seeks to distinguish himself from
ordinary politicians. To do this, he works to be
perceived as an ordinary citizen without luxuries,
and the best way to achieve this is through close
and direct communication, influential symbolic
actions, and messages. In this way, Zelenskyi
needs to convince the international community to
support Ukraine and punish Russia for the
invasion. If Zelenskyi can convince public
opinion to support more and more countries, the
chances of gaining more support increase, as
public opinion can influence policy decisions
through the CNN effect. He concentrates his
entire convictions in five main messages: the
bravery and patriotism of the Ukrainian people;
an appeal to Putin to meet with him and stop
hostilities; convince NATO to provide a no-fly
zone over Ukraine; and an explanation of why
and how the world should support Ukraine.
It should be noted that these primary messages
may be accompanied by secondary ones,
depending on the situation and the audience.
However, limiting himself to five messages, he
strives to be direct and clear in his speeches and
constantly repeats them. An example of the use
of secondary messages is an appeal to public
opinion, parliaments, or governments of third
countries.
Regarding the third question on the role of
intercultural factors in communication, we note
the following:
Our understanding of the world is shaped by
historical distances in our mind maps,
influencing memory, identity, and political
decisions. Emotions, integral to long-term
memory, often lead to a "rosy" view of the past
and a critical stance on the present. Cultural
resonance, a key concept, uses salient and
emotionally charged frames in media and
political communication. This resonance attracts
attention and influences identity by shaping
emotions. For the Russian audience, attitudes
toward the USSR form a cornerstone in their
long-term mental maps, affecting perceptions of
the common past with Ukraine. Currently,
Russian authorities have a positive view of the
Soviet period, while Ukrainian representatives,
with different identity narratives, hold mixed or
negative views, especially after the 2022 Russian
aggression and invasion of Ukraine.
The findings of the study significantly contribute
to our understanding of communication
strategies employed in European and Ukrainian
media discourses post-war, addressing three key
questions:
Communication Strategies and Challenges:
Insights: The study highlights the nuanced
communication battles for influence, where
actors prioritize emotions and interpretive
models over verified facts. Russia's utilization of
"hybrid warfare" strategies, including deception,
information operations, and propaganda, is
contextualized, acknowledging the challenges of
targeting mixed audiences and potential risks for
communicators.
Contribution: Understanding the complexity of
communication strategies provides insights into
how narratives are constructed and legitimized,
emphasizing the importance of emotional appeal
in shaping public perception during conflict.
Media's Evolving Role in Crisis Situations:
Insights: The study notes the evolving role of
media, not only in traditional ecosystems but also
in challenging state and military control over
information flows. Continuous war coverage is
no longer exclusive to mainstream media, as
observed through volunteer editors documenting
the Russian invasion on Wikipedia.
Contribution: Recognizing the transformation of
media dynamics underscores the shifting
landscape of information dissemination,
influencing how crises are covered and
documented in non-traditional platforms.
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Speech Acts and Themes Used by World
Leaders:
Insights: The study analyzes the speeches of
world leaders during the crisis, revealing
divergent themes and word choices. Leaders like
Jens Stoltenberg, Joe Biden, Ursula von der
Leyen, and Zelenskyi employ distinct keywords,
reflecting their communication priorities and
strategies.
Contribution: Examining the speech acts
provides valuable insights into how leaders shape
narratives, with each emphasizing specific
themes to influence public perception and
international support. Zelenskyi's focus on direct
and clear messages, coupled with repeated key
points, illustrates a deliberate communication
strategy.
Role of Intercultural Factors in Communication:
Insights: The study emphasizes the impact of
historical distances and cultural resonance on
shaping identity and political decisions. It
explores the "rosy" view of the past and
contrasting attitudes towards the USSR in the
Russian and Ukrainian audiences post-2022
invasion.
Contribution: Understanding intercultural factors
elucidates how historical memory and emotional
resonance influence public attitudes, providing
context for divergent perspectives and potential
areas of tension in media communication.
In summary, the findings enhance our
understanding of the multifaceted nature of
communication strategies in the context of
conflict, shedding light on the challenges,
evolving media roles, speech acts of world
leaders, and the role of intercultural factors.
These insights contribute to a comprehensive
understanding of the complexities surrounding
media discourses in the aftermath of war.
Conclusions
As a result of the research on agonal concepts and
communication strategies in European and
Ukrainian media discourses, the following
conclusions were made:
1. The following tools are used in Ukrainian
and European media discourses after
February 24, 2022: appeal to emotions,
control over messengers, control over the
place of publication, propaganda, and
disinformation.
2. Regarding the speech acts used in
communication in the European and
Ukrainian media space and the
consequences of their use, it should be
remarked that political leaders have a set of
topics to which they constantly refer. These
topics are priorities and those that resonate
with the population to achieve political
goals.
3. Intercultural factors in communication play
a significant role. Thus, these factors allow
Russia to conduct communication activities,
taking into account the commonality of
history and culture with Ukraine. At the
same time, for Ukraine, intercultural factors
make it possible to turn to identity and
independence. In addition, cultural factors
influence the spread of information among
individual countries, because the population
will perceive better what is closer to the
"spirit" of the country and culture.
The first hypothesis was tested and it was
confirmed that the consideration of agonal
concepts and communication strategies depends
on the context in the country where these
concepts are applied: political, socio-cultural,
economic, etc. As for the second concept, it has
been confirmed that communication in mass
media is used for softening or sharpening
perception, building public consciousness and
public perception. The analysis of Ukrainian and
European mass media on issues of war coverage
confirmed that the media use linguistic strategies
to strengthen or reduce the impact of agony
events, to form certain images that are
understandable for perception. The third
hypothesis, which is based on cultural
characteristics, is also proven. Thus, the analysis
shows that the cultural context affects the agonal
concepts in the media. In particular, historical
and cultural characteristics influence how
information is transmitted and perceived by the
public and decision-makers.
Regarding further scientific research, we
consider it necessary to investigate the
peculiarities of the use of propaganda in
European and Ukrainian discourses and its
influence on public consciousness.
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