Volume 12 - Issue 69
/ September 2023
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.34069/AI/2023.69.09.12
How to Cite:
Marukhovskа-Kartunova, O., Marukhovskyi, O., Aleksandrova, M., Ivanova, I., & Lebedenko, N. (2023). Digital journalism and
the role of social media in shaping public perception of Russian aggression in Ukraine. Amazonia Investiga, 12(69), 143-153.
https://doi.org/10.34069/AI/2023.69.09.12
Digital journalism and the role of social media in shaping public
perception of Russian aggression in Ukraine
El periodismo digital y el papel de las redes sociales en la percepción pública de la agresión
rusa en Ucrania
Received: September 15, 2023 Accepted: October 28, 2023
Written by:
Olga Marukhovskа-Kartunova1
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5207-0671
Oleg Marukhovskyi2
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0708-1603
Maryna Aleksandrova3
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2722-398X
Iryna Ivanova4
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4786-4979
Nataliia Lebedenko5
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3599-3914
Abstract
The purpose of the article is to study the role of
digital journalism and social media in creating
public perception of Russian aggression in
Ukraine. To achieve this goal, theoretical general
scientific research methods were used: analysis
and synthesis. The use of the content analysis
method to study the content of messages on
social media and Internet platforms, the use of a
descriptive qualitative approach combined with
discourse analysis and language reconstruction
became relevant. The results of the study indicate
that among the obvious advantages of online
journalism are a variety of information sources,
the ability to disseminate news quickly,
interaction with the audience, global reach, and
open access to information. In addition, in the
Ukrainian context, coordinated efforts have
effectively raised the visibility of Ukraine's
1
PhD in Philosophy, Associate Professor, Head of Social Sciences Section at the Department of the of Foreign Languages and
General Education Disciplines, of the University of Economics and Law «KROK», Kyiv, Ukraine. WoS Researcher ID:
JFJ-5735-2023
2
PhD in Political Science, Associate Professor of the Department of International Relations and Journalism of the University of
Economics and Law «KROK», Kyiv, Ukraine. WoS Researcher ID: JFJ-4799-2023
3
PhD in Philosophy, Docent, Associate Professor Department of Culturology and Media Communication, Faculty of Culturology and
Social Communication, Kharkiv State Academy of Culture, Kharkiv, Ukraine. WoS Researcher ID: HLX-6131-2023
4
Doctor of Philology, Full Professor, Professor of Department of Management of Social Communications, Faculty of International
Relations and Journalism, S. Kuznets Kharkiv National University of Economics, Kharkiv, Ukraine. WoS Researcher ID:
AAX-5543-2021
5
PhD in Philology, Associate Professor, Department of Broadcast and Television of the Faculty of Journalism, Ivan Franko National
University of Lviv, Lviv, Ukraine. WoS Researcher ID: F-9755-2019
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current needs in search engines, which has
contributed to their resolution. However, it
should also be recognised that online journalism
has its drawbacks. The manipulation and spread
of fake news used by Russian propaganda has
highlighted the vulnerability of this form of
journalism. The scale and intensity of Russian
propaganda had a significant impact on the
formation of public opinion among Russians and
partly among foreigners. They began to use
imposed narratives to understand Russian
aggression and the role of other countries in the
conflict. The conclusions emphasise that these
trends underline the importance of the theory of
use and gratification, which indicates that
audiences have their own views on information
sources and are influenced by them according to
their own beliefs.
Keywords: online journalism, social media,
manipulation, Russian-Ukrainian war,
digitalization.
Introduction
The Russian-Ukrainian war was a large-scale
hybrid conflict that had a significant impact on
world public opinion. This war affects public
opinion through various channels, including the
media. Thus, in the information landscape of the
21st century, digital journalism and social media
are becoming important tools for shaping global
discussion and perception of key episodes in
public life. One such event that has played a
significant role in the current global debate is the
Russian aggression in Ukraine. This event not
only triggered political and geopolitical changes
but also transformed the way the world receives,
perceives, and discusses information. In this
context, digital journalism and social media have
played a key role in shaping public opinion on
Russian aggression in Ukraine.
The media, in general, play an important role in
shaping and disseminating public opinion. They
are modern communication channels, such as the
press, television, radio, and the Internet, which
serve to disseminate information. However, it
should be acknowledged that the tools, which are
using in the mass media have a manipulative
possibilities. In the modern society online
journalism plays an important role and becomes
a tool that can directly influence people's minds.
Russia's information manipulative aggression in
the context of events related to Ukraine
emphasises that journalists can use various
methods to manipulate society. Unfortunately,
this aggression is often aimed not only at shaping
certain views but also at undermining the
Ukrainian ethnos.
When analysing the interaction between digital
media and social platforms, it will be important
to determine how they influence the construction
of the information landscape, defining and
redefining the public's views on these events. For
this reason, it is extremely important to consider
the role of digital media and social networks in
determining public perception of Russian
aggression in Ukraine and to reveal the key
mechanisms of this influence.
The aim of the paper is to research of the role of
digital journalism and social media in shaping
public perception of Russian aggression in
Ukraine. This goal will involve several important
tasks: to consider the advantages of online
journalism and social media in shaping public
opinion during the Russian-Ukrainian war, to
identify the shortcomings in their use (on the
example of Russian propaganda activity).
Conceptual Framework or Review Literature
The issue of online journalism and their impact
on public opinion is not new to the scientific
community. Certain aspects of this broad
phenomenon have been the subject of lengthy
consideration and analysis. Some researches
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identified the main problems in the use of and
trust in Internet resources and the information
posted on them. A similar issue was also
addressed by Bakić-Mirić (2018), who critically
assessed the impact and development of social
media and their independent influence on public
opinion. Bakić-Mirić (2018) initiates his paper
by suggesting that a comprehensive grasp of
social media necessitates viewing it through the
lens of critical theory. This perspective offers a
sharp examination of power dynamics and
economic exploitation. It employs dialectical
reasoning as an analytical tool, while also serving
as a critique of prevailing ideologies and political
economies. Furthermore, critical theory
represents an intellectual dimension of societal
struggle. But the author does not provide
concrete examples, in particular, how media
manipulation functions in modern Central-
Eastern Europe.
Bor (2014) studied the transformation of
journalism education on a global scale under the
influence of new digital realities. Therefore, this
work outlines the theoretical foundations of the
influence of social media. An important
shortcoming of the work is the lack of examples
related to the media of Central and Eastern
Europe. Bossio (2017), on the other hand,
characterised the combination of factors
(education, new practices, digitalisation) that
influence modern journalism, identifying its
strengths and weaknesses. This work is more
specific than the previous ones. However, the
disadvantage is that the author tries to cover a
large amount of information for analysis,
however, does not explain the influence of the
media in practice.
The researchers paid considerable attention to the
unfolding of Russian aggression and a response
of the international community, which was partly
shaped by social media. For example, the
problem of falsifications was an important topic
of discussion in the study by Kiliçaslan (2022).
Similarly, difficulties in verifying the work of
online journalists were identified by Hristakieva
et al., (2022) and Kiliçaslan (2022). Also,
Plekhanova et al., (2023), based on the study of
numerous scientific literature, summed up some
of the doubts about the work of online journalists,
the impact of propaganda on their work, etc. At
the same time, important aspects of the formation
of new ethics in the handling of information, the
use and verification of facts, etc. were left out of
the study. The study also did not take into
account the OSINT factor, which has become
particularly popular in the wake of the Russian-
Ukrainian war. Instead, the possibilities of
positive use of social media and online
journalism in covering complex political and
social events, including Russian aggression and
its consequences, are being actively discussed. In
their research project, Norwegian scientists
Karlsen and Aalberg (2021) in their study,
explored the influence of online media on
shaping consumer trust in content. In the same
vein, Pavlik (2022), an American scholar
specializing in the examination of digital
technologies' impact on public opinion,
conducted a compelling study that underscored
the paramount importance of disseminating
accurate information to counteract potential
distortions introduced by Russian propaganda.
To illustrate this, Pavlik drew upon the example
of media coverage during the Russian-Ukrainian
conflict. His analysis predominantly
concentrated on the developments that transpired
after the commencement of a new phase of the
conflict in 2022. However, the weakness of the
work is that the author focused on the analysis of
events from 2022, by passing the details of events
from 2014. This problem is present in many
modern works, since even before 2022 this issue
was not so popular amoung modern scholars.
Furthermore, it's worth noting that an extensive
exploration of the key dynamics in the
information warfare between Ukraine and the
Kremlin regime was already documented in a
comprehensive study authored by Romanian
academics Bînă and Dragomir (2020). This work
offers a thorough examination of the subject
matter, shedding light on the complexities of this
ongoing information battle. The importance of
overcoming information myths through the use
of social media was identified by Geissler et al.
(2023). Similarly, Yuskiv (2022) emphasised the
peculiarities of journalists' work on the Web.
Thus, against the backdrop of general
dissatisfaction with the spread of propaganda and
fake news, researchers also note positive
opportunities in using the Internet for journalism
and shaping public opinion. It is worth noting
that the principles of a professional journalist's
work on the Internet are not much different from
traditional paradigms. It is probably more about
the peculiarities of dissemination and
assimilation of information by users of online
information channels, which will require
additional research in the future.
It is important to emphasise the philosophical
paradigms (Durmishi & Durmishi, 2022) that
become the basis for understanding modern
information society. From this point of view, the
classic works of Jürgen Habermas (2014) and
Michel Foucault (Allan, 2022) are extremely
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important. Although these works do not relate to
specific examples of manipulative influence, but
the studies of these authors constitute the
theoretical and methodological basis of the
research. At the same time, interpretations of the
future development of the public and public
opinion under the influence of future challenges
are relevant (Shakun, 2022), which will
definitely lead to transformations in the
information environment and its perception by
users (Sofilkanych, 2022). The issues of reading
and understanding texts are also important, and
the Internet and new forms of journalism have a
particular impact on them (Lavriv, 2023). Taking
these studies into account allows us to reassess
the possibilities for the development of online
journalism and its impact on public opinion.
Therefore, as the analysis of the literature shows,
modern authors mainly paid attention to the
general theory of media influence on the
consciousness of citizens. These papers form a
powerful methodological basis of this research.
In addition, other authors detailed this issue.
However, in view of the development and use of
more and more new hybrid mechanisms in this in
this war, the problem needs to be reviewed and
certain aspects clarified.
Methodology
Through analysis, the complex phenomenon of
digital online journalism and social platforms
was examined through the prism of a
combination of individual elements. The
application of the synthesis method made it
possible to make certain generalisations on the
proposed issues. The use of the content analysis
method was also relevant, as it allowed us to
study several important elements at once. In
particular, at the initial stage of the work, the
main opinions and views of scholars on the
subject were considered. On the other hand, the
content analysis made it possible to determine the
content of digital information platforms and
social networks, to characterise the manipulative
and truthfulness of content created for the
respective platforms, and their impact on public
opinion around the world.
Conducting a content analysis on this topic
involved a systematic assessment and
classification of the content of literature and
individual digital media sources. Here are some
criteria that are taken into account:
1. Source selection
Various sources of digital media are identified. A
mix of sources with different perspectives and
affiliations is provided
2. Definition of content
Classified content by different types:
1. General theory
2. Empirical works
3. General reviews of articles
4. News articles
3. The key topics or topics related to Russian
aggression in Ukraine, which are discussed
in scientific works and individual media, are
identified.
1. Relations between Ukraine and Russia
2. Ukraine's relationship with NATO and the
EU
3. Propaganda
4. Oppression of Russian speakers in Ukraine
4. Definition of language and tone
The language and tone used in the content was
checked, including the presence of hate speech,
inflammatory language or propaganda in Russian
media.
The methodology used involves a descriptive
qualitative approach combined with discourse
analysis and language reconstruction, which was
inspired by Michel Foucault in his research.
According to him, discourse is not just a set of
words or sentences in a text; rather, it has the
ability to generate something completely new
(Allan, 2022). Therefore, when analysing
discourse, it is imperative to consider linguistic
events through a double lens: one that delves into
both the spheres of meaning and reference.
Foucault's concept of discourse is a valuable tool
for understanding the construction of perception
that underlies communication with an audience.
Our analysis focuses on discourses that develop
within a sphere of influence, often held by
powerful stakeholders who create dominant
narratives aimed at controlling public discourse.
The selection of social media content and
information platforms for analysis was based on
a random sampling from social media catalogues
along with specific findings related to
propaganda related to the Russia-Ukraine
conflict during 2014-2023. Our dataset includes
both primary and secondary data obtained
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through direct observation during visits to social
media platforms to collect information and
content, supplemented by a review of relevant
literature. The selection of specific data samples
for this study includes the determination of
criteria that ensure the appropriateness and
representativeness of the data obtained. Here are
some criteria that are taken into account:
1. Time period: The time frame of the study
covers the period from 2014 to 2022.
2. Geographical focus: primarily interested in
events in Eastern and Southern Ukraine.
3. Data language: English, Ukrainian, Russian.
4. Type of source: News articles, social media
posts, scientific studies, reports, reviews.
Each type of source can provide a different
understanding of a topic.
5. Key Events or Milestones: Focuses on
specific key events or milestones of the war,
such as the annexation of Crimea, major
battles, or diplomatic negotiations.
6. Bias and Objectivity: Potential biases in
selected data sources are considered. For
example, news outlets may have their own
biases, and social media content may be
influenced by algorithms and user behavior.
7. Variety of data. In the paper, the authors
sought to diversify their data sources to
capture a wide range of perspectives,
including different media outlets, political
leanings, and social media influencers.
By defining and following these criteria, a well-
structured and relevant set of data was created,
which made it possible to effectively trace the
role of digital journalism and social media in the
effective formation of public perception of
Russian aggression in Ukraine.
Results
The importance of modern online journalism
for shaping public opinion
Internet journalism, as understood by
contemporary researchers, is a field of journalism
that deals with the creation, editing, and
distribution of information materials via the
Internet (Morris & Ogan, 2018). This form of
journalism uses various online platforms, such as
websites, social media, blogs, and others, to
present news, articles, photos, videos, and other
types of journalistic material online. Online
journalism is evolving along with technological
changes and is influencing the way we receive
and consume news and other information. It is
currently having a significant impact on the
media landscape, as many traditional
publications are moving to an online format, and
new digital publications and blogs are gaining
popularity. It is also important to note that online
journalism covers a variety of topics, from
politics and news to sports, science, culture, and
many other areas, making it accessible and
diverse to a wide range of readers.
An important feature of this type of journalism is
that it allows to quickly focus public attention on
current events, forming certain perceptions about
them and influencing public opinion (Selvarajah
& Fiorito, 2023).
The unfolding of the Russian-Ukrainian war has
demonstrated the speed with which information
about the hostilities spread in the global context.
According to experts, the Russian-Ukrainian war
(its second phase, which began in 2022) is one of
the most widely covered military conflicts of our
time. Thanks to the deployment of the latest
digital technologies, photo and video recording,
materials from the battlefields instantly spread
across social media and other resources.
Supplemented by professional commentary and
reviews, they were at the top of the viewing and
public interest list around the world
(Shevchenko, 2022). At the same time, access to
the Internet has also helped to shape public
opinion within Ukraine, thereby strengthening
resistance to Russian aggression.
Therefore, the use of online journalism and social
media has numerous advantages for shaping
public opinion (See Table 1):
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Table 1.
Advantages of social media and online journalism in shaping public opinion
Advantage
Characteristics
Wide access to information
The Internet provides quick and easy access to a variety of information
sources from around the world. This helps citizens to get multiple
perspectives on events and issues and to make informed decisions.
Diversity of sources
There are various types of information sources on the Internet, including
news sites, blogs, social media, video blogs, and more. This allows
citizens to receive information from a variety of authors and sources,
which contributes to a more objective consideration of issues.
Instant relevance
Online journalism allows you to provide up-to-date information in real
time. This is especially important when covering fast-moving events such
as emergencies or political changes.
Ability to interact
Online journalism and social media create opportunities for interaction
between journalists and readers or viewers. This fosters active discussion
and exchange of views, which can enrich public opinion.
International coverage
The Internet allows journalists and citizens to obtain information about
events abroad and to cover international issues. This contributes to a
broader global understanding and appreciation of different cultures and
perspectives.
Open access
Many online information resources are available free of charge, allowing
more people to access information regardless of their financial means.
Source: created by the authors based on Lestari (2019), Pickard (2020), Douglas, & Phillips (2022)
All of these factors make online journalism and
social media a powerful tool for shaping public
opinion and contributing to a more open and
informed society. Similarly, coordinated action
in the Ukrainian context has made it possible to
bring the most pressing needs of Ukraine to the
top of the search results, thereby putting
significant pressure on their implementation. In
general, the efficiency and comprehensiveness of
the Internet has opened up opportunities for
information dissemination.
Propaganda on the Web: the Russian case of
the invasion of Ukraine 2014-2023
Online journalism, in addition to its many
advantages, has a number of propaganda
capabilities. The entire arsenal of such
vulnerabilities was demonstrated by Russian
propagandists when they began to justify the
Kremlin regime's aggression against Ukraine
(Drugă, 2023). This is especially true of Russian
websites or special accounts on social media that
spread false or partially true information. In
particular, almost since the end of February 2014,
the vast majority of Russian online media have
joined the information and psychological warfare
against Ukraine, trying to support the attack
against Ukraine. Such well-known Russian new
media websites as newspapers and news outlets
such as Vesti (Izvestia), Rossiyskaya Gazeta
(Rossiyskaya Gazeta), Moskovskiy
Komsomolets (Moskovskiy Komsomolets),
Kommersant (Kommersant), Vzglyad (Vzglyad)
as well as entire powerful companies such as RIA
Novosti, ITAR-TASS, ROSBALT, AIS, etc., not
only actively disseminated uncertain
information, but also formulated and
disseminated false information themselves.
For example, since the winter 2014, the same
Izvestia, Rossiyskaya Gazeta, Moskovsky
Komsomolets, Kommersant, Vzglyad and other
media outlets have been spreading false
information about the defection of the Ukrainian
Black Sea Fleet's flagship, the Ukrainian Navy
frigate Hetman Sahaidachny, to Russia. The
prevalence of destructive hostile propaganda and
the dissemination of false news through
newspapers in the occupied territories of eastern
Ukraine since the spring 2014 has been one of the
main reasons for the high prevalence of anti-
Ukrainian sentiment and separatist rhetoric
among the local population (up to 70 percent)
(Afanasiev et al., 2023). Some publications
actively use Internet resources and do not
prohibit their website administrators from using
fictitious or false information to disseminate
propaganda messages (Zhabotynska & Ryzhova,
2022). Such a “source” is, for example,
Pravda.ru. The history of this resource is
illustrative, as it was among the first Russian
information and analytical publications to appear
on the Russian-language Web. If we trust the
information posted on the website, the
publication has a respected reputation and high
ratings. Every day, more than 250,000 unique
users visit the website and read at least a few of
the materials on offer. A closer look at the
materials on this site reveals that much of the
information is openly propagandistic and does
not reveal the true nature of the phenomena
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described. In addition, the “journalists” use a
number of methods that openly indicate the
presence of paid propaganda goals (Fredheim,
2016). For example, on 15 October 2015,
Pravda.ru published an article with the vocal title
“With the help of the 'Insurgent Alphabet',
Ukrainians are taught to 'kill Muscovites'”. The
content of the material allegedly points to a new
Ukrainian school doctrine and new textbooks,
where the main characters with strange names
Adolfik and Alarmik “demonstrate” to students
how to get rid of Ukraine's enemies - Russians
and Poles. In this particular case, a method of
outright distortion of reality was used, which was
intended to appeal to those Russians who are not
familiar with the internal situation in our country
and tend to consider it a “wild country”. The
issue of 17 August 2015 contained an article
“Stephen Cohen: The idea of “two Ukraine's” is
not so bad”. The article states that Ukrainian and
American politicians are not averse to dividing
Ukraine and separating the entire Donetsk region
from it. Thus, “two Ukraine” would have to
emerge - an option, according to the publication,
that is quite acceptable to world politics. In fact,
the method of stating a fact was used in the
formation of this news: the official position of the
state (in this case, the United States of America)
was replaced by the subjective opinion of a little-
known American professor Stephen Cohen.
In addition, Pravda.ru's contributors often use the
method of labelling. Words and phrases that
evoke negative associations on an unconscious
level appear systematically in articles: “fascists”,
“punishers”, “punitive troops”, “junta”, “people's
mayor”, “people's governor” (meaning self-
proclaimed), “thugs”, “far-right”, “Nazis”, etc.
(Yadlin-Segal & Oppenheim, 2021).
Since the beginning of the full-scale invasion of
Ukraine, these narratives have only intensified,
with Russian cyber forces actively spreading
false information on social media. On 23 May
2023, the Permanent International Media
Monitoring Mission, which examines
disinformation related to Ukraine and was
launched by the NGO Ukraine 2050, presented a
report available in five languages (English,
German, French, Spanish, and Ukrainian). This
report covers the media monitoring of
disinformation about Ukraine from 24 February
2022, when Russia's full-scale war against
Ukraine began, to 24 February 2023. The report
combines the various disinformation narratives
into seven general meta-narratives to better
highlight the information base that Russian
propaganda created during the active phase of the
war. These seven disinformation metanarratives
are as follows:
1. “NATO, led by the United States and
supported by the West, is the aggressor that
launched military operations against Russia
in Ukraine”.
2. “Ukraine is an aggressive, artificial, and
neo-Nazi country”.
3. “Europe and the West, in general, are
making mistakes by providing weapons and
any other assistance to Ukraine, as well as by
using sanctions against the Russian
Federation”.
4. “Ukraine is committing a number of war
crimes and terrorist acts against its
population and staging civilian casualties to
blame the Russian government”.
5. “Ukraine oppresses everything Russian:
language, culture, etc.”.
6. “Russia is a humane state that fiercely
defends its interests”.
7. “Russia is the last pillar of spirituality in
modern Europe and the leader of the
movement against the spread of Western
neo-colonialism”.
These meta-narratives reflect various attempts to
manipulate public opinion and create alternative
narratives about the war in Ukraine (Käihkö,
2018). It is important to analyse and critically
evaluate the information presented in the media,
especially on social media, in order to achieve an
objective perception of events. It is worth
remembering that Russian bots often operate on
social media, spreading false information to
discredit the Ukrainian population. In particular,
it has been proven that Russian bots spread the
idea on social media that Ukrainian refugee
women fled abroad not to escape the war, but to
“take away” their husbands from Polish and
German women (Martinez de Bartolome &
Rivera Martín, 2023). Of course, all these
narratives are subject to fact-checking and have
nothing to do with reality, but they have a certain
impact on public opinion.
Discussion
The concept of the “public sphere” is of key
importance for understanding the functioning of
modern societies, as the German philosopher
Jürgen Habermas proposed to study in his time
(Habermas, 2014). Habermas was inclined to
understand public perception and public opinion
as a kind of social mechanism that participates in
the organisation and conduct of certain critical
public debates, emphasising the importance of
promoting social discourse and shaping
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perceptions (Habermas, 2014). This vital area of
public engagement, fundamental to democracy,
provides citizens with a sanctioned platform to
express their views. Any arena where people, in
their individual capacity, can express their views
on specific topics qualifies as a manifestation of
the public sphere.
In today's landscape, the emergence of digital
communication technologies, often referred to as
digital cultures, has brought about profound
changes in the media industry. Researchers have
drawn parallels between this technological
evolution and Habermas's conceptualisation of
the public sphere. Instead of being static tools,
information and communication technologies are
dynamic mechanisms that change our cognitive
capacities and create effective models of social
and political interaction (Mateus, 2020). Thus,
the public sphere, in the Habermasian sense, is
being re-established as an intermediate space
between the government and the public sphere,
on the one hand, and the private spheres of
individuals and groups, on the other (Astuti et al.,
2022). Today, citizens are not just passive media
consumers, but active contributors and
participants in the public sphere of media. In
addition, a number of different public forums,
including exhibitions, meetings, conferences,
protest marches, street performances, theatre
productions, universities, cafes, public spaces,
and clubs, play a key role in maintaining
discussions in the public sphere.
The emergence and functioning of digital
channels of information transmission has greatly
expanded the possibilities for shaping public
opinion. Online journalism and social media
have become key tools for disseminating
information and have become convenient
mechanisms for consumers to absorb it (Geissler
et al., 2023). It is worth discussing that in modern
works detailed attention is paid to the advantages
of digital journalism. In particular, an important
aspect is the rapid dissemination of information,
global coverage, multimedia content, and
diversity of viewpoints. In addition, it is worth
considering that Internet news is available 24/7,
allowing people to stay informed at their
convenience, given their busy lifestyles.
At the same time, other shortcomings of digital
journalism have been identified in detail in
scientific studies. For this reason, disinformation
is important. Digital journalism is susceptible to
the spread of false information. In the conditions
of Russian aggression in Ukraine, this can lead to
the spread of misleading or fabricated stories,
which will affect public perception. A significant
problem is the lack of editorial supervision.
Some digital platforms may lack rigorous
editorial oversight, leading to lower journalistic
standards, sensationalism, and a focus on bait
rather than accuracy. On the other hand, social
media algorithms can create filter bubbles where
people only receive information that matches
their existing beliefs. This can reinforce
prejudices and polarize public opinion. There
also forms of deliberate manipulation and the use
of false information, which, in times of rapid
information transfer, can multiply in the
information space in a matter of hours.
Globally, social media users do not simply fall
victim to deceptive information (Hristakieva et
al., 2022). Many of them accept false narratives
due to the influence of their political context and
in order to conform to their own political beliefs.
This approach to understanding audience
behaviour in media is known as the Usage and
Gratification Theory (UGT) (Karlsen & Aalberg,
2021; Selvarajah & Fiorito, 2023). The UGT
assumes that media users are not passive
consumers, but rather have freedom of choice
and play an active role in interpreting and using
media in their lives (Durmishi & Durmishi,
2022). This theory argues that audiences are
responsible for their choice of media that meets
their needs and provides them with satisfaction.
It can be argued that in the Ukrainian context, this
concept is confirmed, as the possibilities for
choosing information sources are tangible, and
many people have made a conscious choice to
trust some messages (social media posts) and
ignore others. It can be used to spread
manipulative materials. The power wielded by
netizens, who have the ability to generate,
consume, and reproduce information online, has
led to an alarming surge in disinformation and
misinformation about the Russian-Ukrainian
war. This trend often involves the dissemination
of false statements and racially charged
information and propaganda materials. The
formation of perceptions, which in turn shape the
perception of reality, can have both a direct and
indirect impact on public opinion about the
Russian-Ukrainian war. These perceptions, once
formed, are transmitted through both verbal and
non-verbal means, contributing to the creation of
further discourse.
Instead, OSINT platforms specialising in
publishing information from private
investigations and being highly effective have
become an under-researched phenomenon during
the Russian-Ukrainian war. Open-source
intelligence (OSINT) is a abstract approach or set
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of implements for finding and extracting
information from economic, political and
military sources available in the public domain
and not violating the law (Horska et al., 2023).
This type of analysis is widely used in the field
of national defence and security, as well as in
investigative operations. Typically, the OSINT
methodology includes the following steps:
searching for information sources, registering
them, processing and analysing actual data,
storing the information, and establishing some
measures. Even raw information from the Net, if
properly processed, can contain a significant
amount of useful information that, if necessary,
can be classified as secret and given the status of
a state secret (Horska et al., 2023). Broadly
speaking, OSINT analytics stands out as a highly
promising facet of journalism, with a notable
capacity to disseminate pertinent information
across various online platforms. This field of
journalism is dedicated to sourcing and analyzing
publicly available data from the internet, making
it a valuable source of up-to-date, meaningful
information. Despite the fact that such research
can also spread fake news and propaganda
materials, some research groups value their
reputation and only share verified data.
Conclusions
Therefore, at the present stage, online journalism
and social media are important elements in
shaping public opinion, which is also evident in
the case of the unfolding Russian aggression.
First of all, it is worth noting that online
journalism has made it possible to focus the
world's attention on important events taking
place in the world. The Russian aggression has
also become an event, so the prompt coverage of
the events has shaped a certain public opinion
about the Russian aggressors. Among the
unequivocal advantages of this form of
information presentation are a variety of sources,
instant relevance, the opportunity for feedback
and interaction, global international coverage,
and open access. In addition, coordinated
activities in the Ukrainian context made it
possible to effectively raise the needs of Ukraine
in search results, which significantly contributed
to their implementation. In general, the
efficiency and comprehensiveness of the Internet
have opened up wide opportunities for
information dissemination. This has also led to
the spread of negative manifestations of online
journalism and the influence of social media on
public opinion. The manipulations and outright
fakes used by Russian propaganda demonstrated
the vulnerability of online journalism. The
massiveness and activity of Russian propaganda
information influenced the formation of public
opinion among Russians and partly foreigners,
who began to use imposed narratives to explain
Russian aggression, define the role of the United
States in the conflict, etc. This trend proves the
theory of use and satisfaction, which shows the
audience's commitment to certain sources of
information.
Implications for the future:
An important aspect of this article is to discuss
the implications of this research for future
conflicts. Extrapolating the conclusions
regarding the role of digital journalism and social
networks in shaping the public perception of
Russian aggression in Ukraine, it is called to
reveal how similar dynamics can affect future
conflicts. In addition, it is in this context that the
development of media literacy, after the spread
of misinformation through digital journalism and
social media, emphasizes the need for increased
media literacy and education. Education
programs can help the public distinguish between
reliable and unreliable sources of information by
developing critical thinking skills. A separate
aspect is the regulation of the accountability
process. It says that governments and tech
companies may need to strengthen regulations
and accountability measures to counter the
spread of false information. This could involve
stricter content moderation, fact-checking and
penalties for those who deliberately spread
misinformation. An important point is the
development of ethical reporting. Journalists and
news organizations must adhere to high ethical
standards, fact-checking and appropriate
reporting practices. Ethical journalism can
counter sensationalism and misinformation. In
addition, the international community can work
together to counter state-financed disinformation
campaigns and cyberwarfare during conflicts.
Multilateral efforts can help mitigate the spread
of false narratives. Meanwhile, fact-checking
organizations can play an important role in
debunking false claims and providing accurate
information. Supporting fact-checking efforts
can help combat the spread of misinformation.
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