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DOI: https://doi.org/10.34069/AI/2023.69.09.7
How to Cite:
Khriapynskyi, A., Khmyrov, I., Svoboda, I., Shevchuk, M., & Iastrebova, V. (2023). State information security strategies in
conditions of hybrid threats. Amazonia Investiga, 12(69), 84-93. https://doi.org/10.34069/AI/2023.69.09.7
State information security strategies in conditions of hybrid threats
Стратегії інформаційної безпеки держави в умовах гібридних загроз
Received: August 9, 2023 Accepted: September 16, 2023
Written by:
Anton Khriapynskyi1
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2492-051X
Ihor Khmyrov2
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7958-463X
Ivo Svoboda3
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0941-4686
Mykhailo Shevchuk4
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7549-6344
Vira Iastrebova5
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0757-2090
Abstract
Hybrid information threats under the conditions
of modern development of digital technologies
are currently becoming one of the major issues
for a modern democracy. The amount of damage
that hybrid threats bring to the world economy
contributes to the establishment of effective legal
mechanisms to combat them. The purpose of the
study was to single out the information security
strategies under conditions of hybrid threats,
including the spread of disinformation and fake
news. The application of the comparative
analysis method mad it possible to identify the
gaps in information security strategies for
countering hybrid threats. The strategy of
information security in the conditions of hybrid
threats is a coordinated action plan aimed at
countering and fighting hybrid threats to
safeguard cyberspace and preserve a democracy.
Information security against hybrid threats is
based on such cornerstones as: availability,
confidentiality, integrity of information data, and
safety. Enhancement of information security
under the conditions of hybrid threats should be
1
Candidate of Law, Director, "KHRIAPYNSKYI & CO" LTD, Kharkiv, Ukraine.
2
Doctor of Science in Public Administration, Associate Professor, Senior Researcher, Scientific Department of Problems of Civil
Protection and Technogenic and Ecological Safety of the Scientific and Research Center, National University of Civil Protection of
Ukraine, Kharkiv, Ukraine. WoS Researcher ID: CZO-2061-2022
3
Associate Professor, Guarantor of Security Management Studies, AMBIS, a.s. Vyská škola, Praha, Česka Republika.
WoS Researcher ID: CBV-4475-2022
4
Candidate of Science of Law, Doctoral Student, Department of Constitutional Law, Administrative Law, Financial Law, Leonid
Yuzkov Khmelnytskyi University of Management and Law, Khmelnytskyi, Ukraine. WoS Researcher ID: IQW-6294-2023
5
Post Graduate Student of the 1st Year, Department of Political Theories, National University “Odesa Law Academy”, Odesa,
Ukraine.
Khriapynskyi, A., Khmyrov, I., Svoboda, I., Shevchuk, M., Iastrebova, V. / Volume 12 - Issue 69: 84-93 / September, 2023
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carried out at the expense of digital
transformation, increasing the level of digital
literacy of society and establishing a fair
responsibility measure for a purposeful
spreading of disinformation. The perspective of
further research is addressing information
security strategies as well as elaborating practical
guidelines for the formation of a secure
information space.
Keywords: information security, threat,
strategy, cyberspace, disinformation.
Introduction
In 2014, the open Russian conflict with Ukraine
became an external threat for many countries, as
a rapid flow of disinformation, Russian
propaganda and fake news began occurring in
their information space. Ignoring such an
information flow of false information can entail
social destabilization with subsequent
manifestation of violence, riots and crimes
against the pillars of national security. Taking
into consideration the need to create an effective
system of discerning disinformation and
deterring its spread, in particular the one that
poses a threat to national security, the search for
effective information security strategies becomes
a priority for a number of states worldwide.
The relevance of the research topic under study is
due to the fact that today's challenges create
numerous external threats to the functioning of
secure information space. Their volume and variety
is rapidly changing and gaining momentum. An
uncontrolled, systematic and ongoing flow of such
information is one of the principal issues that
threaten the country’s national sovereignty. Taking
into account the internal and external vectors of
information dissemination in cyberspace,
representatives of the international community are
taking individual (first) steps in the direction of
legal regulation of the dissemination of
information, procedures for restricting access in the
event that it becomes biased and unreliable (fake)
and contains calls for violation of national interests
of the state. At the same time, the initial steps are
being taken to develop legal mechanisms for
bringing to justice subjects involved in the spread of
disinformation and fake news. A legal mechanism
of punishment for the untimely implementation of
appropriate response measures by both competent
state bodies and private entities is also being
elaborated.
The purpose of the current study is to examine
the information security strategies of the world's
leading countries and their countermeasures
against hybrid information threats.
To address the specified purpose of the article,
the following research objectives were set forth:
− to determine the content of the information
policy and its functioning measures by
analyzing the scientific literature;
− to conduct an analysis of the international
legal treaties’ provisions and the norms of
the national legislation of the EU countries
in the field of information security and to
determine the legal mechanisms for
countering hybrid threats;
− to analyze the current state of information
security strategies’ efficiency while tackling
the hybrid threats of the EU member states
and to establish the ways in enhancing
thereof.
Literature Review
Probing into the EU information legislation
through the lens of hybrid threats, Lonardo
(2021: 1077) and Khmel (2022: 92-93) argue that
EU policy puts the main responsibility for
countering hybrid threats on EU member states,
i.e. at the national level, not at the regional level.
The same viewpoint is maintained by Pijpers et
al., (2021), examining NATO and EU cyberspace
security measures against hybrid threats. In
scholar’s opinion, EU information security does
not depend on regional mechanisms for
countering hybrid threats, but rather on NATO's
mandate as a indispensable partner in military
and other frameworks of deterrence against
hybrid threats. Being a full NATO’s partner, the
EU exercises the right to military assistance in
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the event of extraordinary threats to the national
security of a NATO member state. On the other
hand, threats in cyberspace area are not qualified
as such to which physical force must be applied,
and assistance is beyond the scope of classical
military powers. Probing into the issue of legal
regulation of the information sphere in the EU,
Datzer and Lonardo (2022: 2-3) claims that
hybrid threats are external threats posing a threat
to national security. Another scholar, Saurwein
and Spencer-Smith (2020: 8254), while
conducting an analysis of the impact of hybrid
threats on the development of the information
sphere, notes that the effectiveness of the
information strategy will depend on the
establishment of legal countermeasures against
false news in cyberspace. One of these measures
is the developers’ provision of safe digital
content on the Internet. Addressing information
security strategies, Li et al., (2020: 192) and
Alraja et al., (2023) maintain that Internet users’
perception and awareness entails more efforts by
the producers of digital software to ensure
information security in cyberspace as well as on
part of the government officials to create a
balance between producers and users by
introducing effective measures to develop the
applicable policy of information security.
According to Nord et al., (2020: 218-219) and
Xue et al., (2021: 2-4), information security
strategies should evaluate and take into account
the level of users’ legal awareness, their digital
literacy and self-efficacy in ensuring information
security.
As noted by Sari (2018) and Perot (2019: 40-43),
countering hybrid threats in cyberspace is
necessary by strengthening the legal basis of
information policy and promoting one's vision of
international order. According to Tenove (2020:
517-519) and Allcott et al., (2019: 2-3), the
development of information policy in a legal
state should include legal measures aimed at
ensuring information security and legal
mechanisms for the protection of the information
space, based on international information
standards. The combination of these information
policy components will evidently contribute to
countering threats in the information sphere.
Analyzing information security as a component
of Taiwan's innovative development, Wu et al.,
(2020) concludes that information security in the
era of the Internet is a strategic factor for the
development of artificial intelligence and the
development of a smart cities network in Taiwan.
To ensure technological development of Taiwan,
the government constantly adjusts the
information security strategy, which ensures the
proper functioning of innovative programs in
cyberspace. The analysis of promising ways of
improving the system of information security
measures in such smart cities is implemented by
studying the relationships between the
formulation, implementation, support and
effectiveness of the information security policy,
support and effectiveness of the information
security policy.
Bajarūnas (2020: 62-64) and Kalniete and
Pildegovičs (2021: 24-25) conducted the analysis
of information security strategies in the EU and
means of combating hybrid threats. The result of
which was the statement that under modern
conditions, after Russia's unprovoked open
military invasion of Ukraine in 2014, countering
hybrid threats and disinformation became a
priority task for the EU. The introduction of
universal and effective means of ensuring
information security is a complex process. Due
to the rapid changes occurring, external and
internal threats in cyberspace take place
requiring ongoing monitoring and updating the
means of countering them. Investigating
information security strategies in the Czech
Republic under the conditions of external threats,
Daniel and Eberle (2021: 432) notes that the
means of combating hybrid information warfare
should be based on proper defense, timely
response, high level of education and media
literacy, and effective protection methods.
Datsenko (2019: 40-41) and Panchenko (2021:
29) presented their findings of probing into the
means of ensuring information security through
the prism of combating Russian propaganda in
the information space of Ukraine. These were to
the point of asserting the feasibility of
introducing interconnected means of countering
hybrid threats in cyberspace. According to the
scholars, cooperation with international
organizations, exchange of experience with
leading countries in terms of information
security strategies, monitoring of media
resources, transparency of the work of competent
authorities on information policy and public
participation in the socio-political life of the state
will sufficiently contribute to the creation of safe
content in the information space (Semenyshyn et
al., 2020).
That being said, despite quite a wide-ranging
scholarly research on the above issue, questions
regarding the effectiveness of state information
security strategies through the prism of hybrid
threats and war, which determines the relevance
of the current research topic, remain scarce.
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Methods and Materials
The analysis procedure of the current research
included three stages. At the first stage, a review of
the scientific literature was carried out into the
subject of hybrid threats significance and their
implications for a democratic society, as well as the
possibilities for cyberspace and social networks to
shape society’s behavior. A review of the scientific
literature was also conducted on the research
subject in terms of information security measures,
the improvement strategy and operation principles
thereof. The provisions’ selection of the EU
countries’ international and national legislation in
the field of information security against hybrid
threats was carried out. The materials of the leading
organizations have been selected to assess the
countries’ rating regarding their capabilities to
protect information in cyberspace.
At the second stage, theoretical and experimental
research was conducted by comparing the obtained
results and analyzing discrepancies. The provisions
of the Convention on Cybercrime for determining
the grounds and punishment measure for
committing criminal acts in cyberspace have been
considered. The provisions of the Action Plan
against Disinformation were considered for the
purpose of evaluating information security
strategies for countering hybrid threats and the
effectiveness of its measures in hybrid warfare.
Furthermore, the provisions of the ISO/IEC 27000
series of international standards for the assessment
of information security in hybrid warfare were also
studied. A review of the national legislation in the
field of information security of France, Germany,
Poland, and Great Britain was carried out to
determine the state of establishment of effective
mechanisms for countering hybrid threats. By
comparing the Global Cybersecurity Index 2020,
National Cyber Security Index 2022 and Cyber
Defense Index 2022/23 ratings, the current state of
EU countries' cyber defense strategies is
highlighted.
At the third stage, using the functionality of
Microsoft Office software, the criteria for assessing
the level of cyber protection of the EU countries
were systematized, as well as the scientific
discussion on the effectiveness of information
security strategies in the fight against hybrid threats
and ways to improve them. By means of the
specified software product, an analysis of the
processed materials was carried out on the subject
of the assigned tasks and the findings of the
conducted research were drawn into a report.
The application of comparative analysis method,
scientific, legal, statistical and practical information
about hybrid threats and their implications for a
democratic state were analyzed. The cyber
protection level of each EU country was evaluated
relying on the system-logical method. Owing to the
combination of empirical and theoretical methods,
an empirical interpretation of the theory and
theoretical interpretation of empirical data was
conducted, while also considering the legal
principles of countermeasures and the fight against
hybrid threats in the information space were
distinguished. The doctrinal analysis of scientific
works on the problematic issues of ensuring
information security under the conditions of hybrid
threats made it possible to identify gaps in
information security strategies and find the
measures to bridge them.
Taking into consideration the study objectives, the
sample was as follows: general characteristics of
information security and its relevance for the state;
determination of the principles of information
security under the conditions of hybrid threats;
perceiving the information space as a digital
platform for spreading misinformation and threats
to national security; the system of international and
national legislation of the EU countries in the field
of ensuring information security; the system of
legal measures against hybrid threats; assessment of
cyber protection level of EU member states;
national legislation of France, Germany, Poland,
Great Britain in the field of combating and
combating disinformation; the hands-on practice of
combating hybrid threats. The comprehensive
character of studying these objects contributed to
the identification of information security strategies’
through the prism of countering and combating
hybrid threats in current social environment.
The principal materials on which the research
was grounded are provisions of international
documents as follows: Convention on
Cybercrime, EU Action Plan against
Disinformation and a series of international
standards ISO/IEC 27000. Besides, there are
provisions of national legislation of EU
countries, namely: Code of Practice for
Countering Disinformation on the Internet and
Netzwerkdurchsetzungsgesetz (Deutschland),
Law in the field of combating information
manipulation (France), Anti-fake law (Great
Britain). Furthermore, the research was carried
out drawing on the practice of the joint unit of
Great Britain with Poland for countering Russian
disinformation and propaganda, and then the
analysis was conducted into the data of the
Global Cybersecurity Index 2020, National
Cyber Security Index 2022 and Cyber Defense
Index 2022/23 rankings. Consequently, the study
of the selected research was carried out on the
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basis of scientific literature on information
security and doctrinal analysis on the problems
of combating hybrid threats.
Results
The gaps analysis in the field of information
legislation indicates an imbalance and unevenness
between measures to ensure the functioning of
information policy and information security
protection (Figure 1).
Enhancing information security in cyberspace
should be carried out by upgrading digital
transformation as the major factor in the
digitalization development of state authorities. This
position is held by 87% of respondents included in
the Global Cybersecurity Index 2020 (International
Telecommunication Union, 2021). Similarly,
(87%) heads of the organization and managerial
directors point to the feasibility of improving legal
mechanisms for countering and fighting hybrid
information threats. What is more, unauthorized
access to a large amount of personal and
confidential information, which is transmitted by
electronic means, is likely to cause serious
consequences. In 2020, the amount of losses due to
cybercrime was estimated at 1 trillion US dollars,
and in 2021 - almost 6 trillion US dollars
(International Telecommunication Union, 2021).
The said scale of losses from hybrid information
threats testifies to the need to improve legal
mechanisms for countering fake news and
disinformation. In sum, the security of information
and the creation of safe digital content is currently
becoming a prerrequisite for the information
society development.
Figure 1. System of measures aimed at ensuring information security
Source: Author's own development.
Time and again, European countries suffered
negative consequences from external
information threats. Accordingly, they quickly
began to introduce means of countering such
threats by improving legal mechanisms for
regulating the information sphere. The level of
information protection in cyberspace and the
state of secure Internet content in the EU are
indicated in Table 1. The level of information
security of EU member states is examined by
assessing the date of Global Cybersecurity Index
2020, National Cyber Security Index 2022 and
Cyber Defense Index 2022/23 for each EU
country individually.
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Table 1.
Level of cyber protection of EU member states
Country
Global
Cybersecurity
Index 2020
Country
National Cyber Security Index
2022
Country
Cyber
Defense
Index
2022/23
Rating
Indicator
Rating
National
Cyber
Security
Index
The level of
digital
development
Rating
Indicator
Great Britain
2
99.54
Belgium
1
94.81
74.07
Netherlands
2
7.61
Estonia
3
99.48
Lithuania
2
93.51
67.34
Poland
6
6.91
Spain
4
98.52
Estonia
3
93.51
75.59
Great Britain
7
6.79
France
9
97.6
Czech
Republic
4
92.21
69.21
France
8
6.78
Germany
13
97.41
Germany
5
90.91
69.21
Switzerland
10
6.45
Portugal
14
97.32
Romania
6
89.61
59.84
Italy
11
6.37
Latvia
15
97.28
Greece
7
89.61
64.02
Germany
13
6.24
Netherlands
16
97.05
Portugal
8
89.61
68.46
Spain
14
6.13
Norway
17
96.89
Great
Britain
9
89.61
79.96
Belgium
19
96.25
Spain
10
88.31
72.21
Italy
20
96.13
Poland
11
87.01
65.03
Finland
22
95.78
Austria
12
85.71
75.76
Sweden
26
94.55
Finland
13
85.71
78.35
Greece
28
93.98
France
15
84.42
77.29
Austria
29
93.89
Sweden
16
84.42
81.51
Poland
30
93.86
Denmark
17
84.42
82.68
Denmark
32
92.6
Croatia
18
83.12
64.63
Croatia
33
92.53
Slovakia
19
83.12
65.44
Slovakia
34
92.36
Netherlands
20
83.12
81.86
Hungary
35
91.28
Italy
23
79.22
67.26
Cyprus
41
88.82
Latvia
25
75.32
66.23
Switzerland
42
86.97
Ireland
26
75.32
75.18
Ireland
46
85.86
Switzerland
27
75.32
82.93
Iceland
58
79.81
Bulgaria
28
74.03
62.06
Romania
62
76.29
Hungary
36
67.53
64.25
Slovenia
67
74.93
Norway
38
67.53
80.19
Czech
Republic
68
74.37
Cyprus
39
66.23
68.83
Bulgaria
77
67.38
Slovenia
56
59.74
69.74
Source: Author's own development based on (International Telecommunication Union, 2021; MIT Technology
Review, 2023; NCSI, 2023).
In 2018, the EU aimed to protect a democratic
society and ensure the public's right to free access
to a wide variety of verified information in order
to form citizens’ own political views in the
future. In other words, to ensure a free and fair
electoral process through the participation of
citizens in political debates with the free
expression of personal position, the European
Commission approved the Action Plan against
Disinformation (European Commission, 2018).
Drawing on the said Plan, the EU outlined four
main areas of information security strategies for
countering and combating disinformation:
improving the mechanism for detecting hybrid
threats in cyberspace; coordinated and timely
response to the detected flow of false information
that poses a threat to the foundations of national
security; safety of digital platforms and social
networks; raising awareness and supporting
citizens. The plan defines the principle measures
to combat disinformation. In particular, these are
as follows: ongoing careful monitoring of the
information flow in cyberspace for threats to the
security of using digital platforms; creation of a
system of rapid notification in case of detection
of a flow of fake news containing a threat to the
national interests of the state; enhancing the level
of digital technologies used in the fight against
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disinformation and increasing the level of digital
media literacy of staff who take measures to
counter disinformation.
Being fully aware of the rapid development of
digital technologies and their fast adaptation in the
life of a person and the state, the international
community approved the Convention on
Cybercrime in 2001 in order to protect information
that is promptly spreading in cyberspace (Council
of Europe, 2001). This Concept not only defines the
importance of information for a present-day digital
society and digital state power, but most
importantly establishes the measure of punishment
- criminal liability for committing crimes in the
digital space and for intentionally spreading
disinformation with the aim of threatening the
national interests of the state.
On the other hand, realizing the risks from hybrid
information threats for a democratic state, the EU
countries have started building their own national
information security strategies aimed at combating
hybrid threats. Thus, in order to stop fake
information in social networks, Germany adopted
the Law "On the Regulation of Social Networks"
(Netzwerkdurchsetzungsgesetz) and the Code of
practice for combating misinformation on the
Internet. In order to combat external information
threats, France adopted the Law on combating
information manipulation, which introduced a
mechanism for state monitoring and control of the
information flow in social networks. The
establishment of legal instruments for combating
hybrid threats in cyberspace also took place in Great
Britain through the adoption of the Anti-Fake Law.
In order to counter the flow of Russian propaganda
and false information, Great Britain together with
Poland formed a unit to counter Russian
disinformation and propaganda. Russia's open
aggression against Ukraine compels the whole
glabal community to quickly find legal mechanisms
to counter external informational threats.
Yet another way to tackle hybrid threats in the
information space is the international standards
of the information security management system.
The ISO/IEC 27000 series of standards is a
guideline and practical provision for the hands-
on application of the necessary means, strategies,
principles to ensure information security
(organization, firm, government body, etc.).
Moreover, those apply to provisions and
approaches to risk management from hybrid
information threats. The ISO/IEC 27000 series
also contains provisions on taking practical
actions aimed at overcoming information
security threats, provisions on the level of
professional training of personnel authorized to
carry out anti-disinformation measures, as well
as the level of digital technologies utilized to
protect cyberspace, organizational resources and
users.
The effectiveness of the information security
strategy for overcoming hybrid threats in
cyberspace will depend on the legal mechanism for
implementing the principles on which it relies
(Figure 2). The system of these principles reflects
the entire spectrum of human rights and freedoms,
the observance of which is a priority for every
democratic state governed by the rule of law.
Figure 2. The principles of information security
Source: Author's own development.
Discussion
The rapid development of digital technologies
contributed not only to the development of the
information sphere, but also became a platform
for an uncontrolled flow of false information that
undermines the basis of national security.
Currently, countering hybrid information threats
in cyberspace is becoming a priority task for the
majority of countries worldwide. That being said,
under the conditions of digital platforms’ and
social networks’ safe use, it is expedient to
safeguard the fundamental human right to free
expression of views as well as the right to obtain
information and freely use it.
Accesibility Security
Privacy Integrity of information data
Principles of information security
development strategy
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According to Lonardo (2021: 1076), hybrid
threats are measures of diplomatic, military,
economic or technological tactics to destabilize a
political opponent. Bajarūnas (2020: 62)
maintains that combating hybrid threats is a
constant, never-ending process that requires
technological development of society, increasing
the level of media literacy of the public, political
stability and the introduction of effective
information security strategies. Information
security under modern conditions of hybrid
information warfare requires effective strategies
for the development of information policy from
states, while its effectiveness depends on
society’s digital literacy level as well as the
development of the state (Daniel & Eberle, 2021:
432; Weissmann, 2019: 18-19). The same
viewpoint is shared by Datsenko (2019: 40-41)
and Panchenko (2021: 29), who believe that the
information security strategy should include the
following measures: constant monitoring of
media resources; publication of analytical
studies’ findings; society’s undisputed
participation in social and political life of the
state through their work in state authorities;
continuous cooperation with international
organizations and other principal states aimed at
sharing leading experience in combating hybrid
threats in the information space and developing
unified measures to counter fake news,
propaganda and disinformation. The
combination of these measures will contribute to
the creation of safe content on the Internet.
Cyber threats in the digital information space are
not characterized as threats that require physical
effort to overcome them (Pijpers et al., 2021).
Basically, hybrid threats in the information space
are alarming to the integrity of the EU.
Therefore, after Russia’s open invasion on the
territory of Ukraine, as noted by Datzer and
Lonardo (2022: 2-3) and Dziundziuk et al.,
(2022), the EU actively began to develop new
information strategies to overcome
disinformation from false Russian propaganda in
the EU’s information space.
The overriding characteristic of EU information
strategies is that they must establish
countermeasures against hybrid threats in the
information space throughout the EU (that is, at
the regional level). Hence, in practice, measures
of information strategies are uneven throughout
the EU. Due to the fact that some member states
insist on strengthening the regulation of digital
platforms, while others stand firm on weakening
the protection of liability and strengthening the
compulsion to create safe content in the Internet
(George et al., 2021: 1067-1069; Saurwein &
Spencer-Smith, 2020: 825).
Freedman et al., (2021: 38-39) and Bajwa (2021:
16-18) note that that uncontrolled hybrid threats
as well as ignoring the scale of their
consequences become the cause of civil society
destabilization by way of leaking the fake
information with anti-Semitic and anti-
democratic implications through civilian
information spaces, doing that with the aim of
committing riots or crimes against the national
security interests of the state. In such cases,
ensuring information security is a strategic task
for any economically developed country, and it is
made possible only provided that the threats are
eliminated in the information space (Allcott et
al., 2019: 2; Tenove, 2020: 518).
As a result of the doctrinal analysis of the
specified problems of the effectiveness of
strategies for the development of information
policy and ensuring information security for the
purpose of overcoming hybrid threats, gives us
the ground to note that scholars see the
expediency in probing deeper into information
security and its measures of support, which
generally adjusts the scope and perspectives of
safeguarding the interests of national security.
Conclusions
The information security strategy for countering
and combating hybrid threats is a general action
plan aimed at counteracting hybrid threats in the
information space, the implementation of which is
established for a certain period. The system of
measures aimed at ensuring information security
consists of legal, technical, organizational measures
as well as cooperation and experience exchange
activities and measures for the development of the
information sphere. Enhancing information
security in cyberspace under the conditions of
hybrid threats is possible by upgrading digital
transformation, improving the level of digital
literacy of society, establishing a fair measure of
punishment for committing cybercrimes. The
effectiveness of the information security strategy
under the conditions of hybrid threats will depend
on the level of implementation of the principles
which it is built on (availability, confidentiality,
integrity of information data, safety).
The prospect of further research is to elaborate
practical guidelines for enhancing the field of
information security by improving legal
mechanisms aimed at combating hybrid threats.
Therefore, we see a further perspective in the
empirically researched and theoretical and
92
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methodological substantiation of effective
mechanisms for countering hybrid threats as the
main obstacle to the creation of safe digital
content for users to express in the digital space
their own free views. Accordingly, the obtained
research results can be used in elaborating certain
mechanisms for improving information security
strategies.
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