Volume 12 - Issue 64
/ April 2023
331
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.34069/AI/2023.64.04.35
How to Cite:
Bader, A., Zhurba, I., Kladko, A., Demchenko, V., & Rusanova, M. (2023). War in the practice of functioning of different types of
political systems. Amazonia Investiga, 12(64), 331-339. https://doi.org/10.34069/AI/2023.64.04.35
War in the practice of functioning of different types of political systems
Війна у практиці функціонування різних типів політичних систем
Received: April 12, 2023 Accepted: May 25, 2023
Written by:
Anton Bader1
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3670-5753
Researcher ID: HNI-7944-2023
Ihor Zhurba2
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3067-2380
Researcher ID: IQW-6526-2023
Artem Kladko3
https://orcid.org/0009-0001-2816-829X
Researcher ID: IQW-6621-2023
Viacheslav Demchenko4
https://orcid.org/0009-0002-3889-7338
Researcher ID: IQW-9115-2023
Maryna Rusanova5
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6818-4107
Researcher ID: HNO-9951-2023
Abstract
The purpose of the paper is to explore the
relationship between the possibility and
necessity of using war and a certain type of
political system. The relevance lies in the fact
that war is inherently destructive and strongly
influences political consciousness. A political
system that exercises power and political
influence contains state and social institutions
with certain values and norms that generate war
or, on the contrary, oppose it. During a full-scale
war, the issue of war in the practice of
functioning of different types of political systems
has become particularly important. The main
methodological approaches were holistic and
systemic analysis. General scientific and
philosophical methods were also used. The study
achieved its goal by fulfilling the following tasks.
Based on the study of literary sources, the
definition of the concepts of “war” and “political
system” was determined. A table of typology of
political systems was developed. The role of war,
its goals, and its objectives in the functioning of
1
Doctor of Political Sciences, Director of the Educational and Scientific Institute of History, International Relations and Socio-
Political Sciences Luhansk Taras Shevchenko National University, Poltava, Ukraine.
2
Assistant of the Department of Philosophy and Sociology Luhansk Taras Shevchenko National University, Poltava, Ukraine.
3
PhD Student of the Third Level of Higher Education Lugansk Taras Shevchenko National University, Poltava, Ukraine.
4
PhD Student of the Third Level of Higher Education Lugansk Taras Shevchenko National University, Poltava, Ukraine.
5
PhD in Historical Sciences, Associate Professor of the Department of Political Science and Law Luhansk Taras Shevchenko National
University, Poltava, Ukraine.
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totalitarian, authoritarian, and democratic
political systems are clarified. The features of the
political system of Ukraine under martial law are
analyzed. The causes and factors of the Russian-
Ukrainian war are determined. The regularities
of activity and functions of political systems are
revealed.
Keywords: Ontology of war, political system of
society, Russian-Ukrainian war, typology of
political systems, war for hegemony.
Introduction
Civil society undergoes constant transformation
in the context of state instability, being in
negative psycho-emotional states depending on
various factors, which mostly has a negative
impact on society. The nature of war is
destructive, which is reflected in the destructive
processes of the individual, the complication of
social communication and interaction. In
addition, there are changes in political,
economic, information, and cultural life. The
ability of civil society to respond to global
challenges, adapt to them, and change the way of
life depends on the political system.
Accordingly, the functioning of war in different
political systems and the ability of society to
adapt to external and internal threats is of
theoretical and practical importance.
Throughout human history, war has been a
powerful means of influencing the political
process. Understanding political phenomena,
including war, is possible only with the benefit of
historical retrospective. The current Ukrainian
realities necessitate the development of critical
thinking in assessing reality and analyzing the
actions of the authorities and political processes
in general. During the war, new countries
emerged, and others disappeared, rulers and
political regimes changed, knowledge was
spread and inhumane ideology was imposed. The
state plays a key role in the realization of public
interests, distributing resources of power, values,
and persuading society to accept a certain order
of reality. The modern world is changing
dynamically, and at the end of the twentieth
century, the concept of a new, post-industrial era
emerged. In the 1990s, the idea of humanity's
transition to an information society spread.
According to the logic of these theories, war as a
tool for the functioning of political systems
should have disappeared, since there is no need
to fight for material resources, and it is almost
impossible to gain intellectual resources by force.
During a full-scale war, one of its components is
the use of information influence on the mass
audience, i.e., the introduction of information
warfare.
These features of the present did not lead to the
abandonment of the use of war in the political
process. On the contrary, the late twentieth and
early twenty-first centuries demonstrated the
opposite trend, aimed at its spread and
intensification. Numerous wars of aggression
and military conflicts, disregard for international
law, the obvious dysfunctionality of the United
Nations (UN), and the full-scale war unleashed
by the Russian Federation in the center of Europe
once again prove the correctness of this thesis. A
hybrid war is currently being waged on the
territory of Ukraine. Studying the classical
interpretation of the phenomenon of war, the vast
Bader, A., Zhurba, I., Kladko, A., Demchenko, V., Rusanova, M. / Volume 12 - Issue 64: 331-339 / April, 2023
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majority of survey and experimental studies raise
the issue of modern warfare, which is associated
with evolutionary and modification changes.
From now on, war is not only a statement of
political relations characterized using various
forms of violence, genocide, and crimes against
humanity. War in the twenty-first century is
hybrid in nature, combining methods of military
strategy and systemic information, psychological
and propaganda influence on large groups of
people. Hybrid warfare has come into use with
the effective introduction of information
technology into people's lives and the emergence
of mass communication tools to influence the
masses.
The described paradox of the modern world
requires a deep scientific understanding of the
correlation between the possibilities and
necessity of using war and a certain type of
political system. Given that Russia's aggression
against Ukraine cannot be explained solely by
analyzing the functioning of the global political
and economic system. The purpose of the study
is to examine the correlation between the
possibility and necessity of using war and a
certain type of political system. The subsequent
tasks must be carried out in order to reach this
goal:
1) to define “war” and “political system”;
2) to develop a unified classification of
political system types;
3) to analyze the functioning of war in
totalitarian, authoritarian, and democratic
political systems;
4) to study the political system of Ukraine
under martial law and the causes of the
Russian-Ukrainian war.
Literature Review
Adamson (2020) examined the phenomenon of
war in the ancient world in the context of how the
republic and empire actually operated.
According to the results of the analysis of
external and internal wars (494 BC-395 AD), 390
battles were recorded in the republic and 225 in
the empire. Of these, 311 battles in the republic
were external and 79 internal. In the empire, 113
wars were external and 112 internal. These data
show that the republic fought mostly for public
goods (e.g., defense of land), while the empire
fought for private goods.
Harrison and Boyd (2018) discuss the
significance of four types of ideologies in politics
and society: hegemonic ideology, resistance
ideology, constrictive ideology, and weakened
ideology. The scholars emphasized that the
prevalence of the dominant ideology or
“hegemony” in capitalist states is due to the need
to maintain power. They also emphasized that
any conflict has an ideological basis. Regional
uprisings and political militarization that have an
impact on the political process were researched
by Eibl, Hertog, and Slater (2019). The authors
come to the conclusion that regional upheavals
cause military authoritarian regimes to arise not
only in a specific region but also globally. A
military invasion, the use of election
manipulation, the violation of political rights, the
limitation of civil liberties, and the weakening of
accountability are the five main traits of an
authoritarian regime that the researchers
discovered.
A theoretical justification of the concept of the
“political system” was offered by Hnasevych
(2018). He described the elements that make up
the political system's structure, such as the media,
public institutions, and political relationships.
According to Ramazanov (2019), the
fundamental cause of World War II's start was
the rivalry between strong nations and their
pursuit of dominance in Europe and beyond.
Researchers Parakhonskyi and Yavorska (2019)
examined the fundamental ideas behind the
concepts of war and peace as they examined the
phenomenon of traditional and hybrid warfare.
The authors conclude that the traditional model
of war involves identifying the enemy, specific
goals, means, and strategic plans for waging war.
The opposite of this model is a hybrid war, which
has an enemy, but the real aspirations of the war
are hidden. In this model, the media play an
important role, creating conditions of
uncertainty, panic, and fear. After researching the
political system during a hybrid war, Smolianiuk
and Krutij (2019) came to the conclusion that it
may be examined from a variety of angles,
including institutional, normative, functional,
communicative, cultural, and ideological. During
a hybrid war, all these aspects change, as new
military bodies are created at the institutional
level; legislation is updated and supplemented at
the normative level; enforcement of the norms
defined in the current legislation takes place at
the functional level; the media influence public
opinion at the communicative level; values and
attitudes change at the cultural and ideological
level.
The functioning of war in different practices of
political systems requires the development of
new ideas and means of countering it. In this
context, an important task is to develop the
capabilities of an individual who has a high level
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of innovative and computer technologies. The
concept of transhumanism will play an important
role in solving this problem (Filipova, Iliev, &
Yuleva-Chuchulayn, 2021).
Methodology
The analysis of the chosen topic is based on the
methodology, in which the author's holistic and
systemic approach is central. The proposed
holistic-systemic approach can be described by
the following theses. The root cause of all socio-
political phenomena and processes is the sum of
people's everyday practices. At the same time,
the use of the systemic-elemental aspect has
revealed that everyday life can be influenced by
various factors, including socio-economic and
political, as well as natural and climatic, cultural,
mental, etc. The application of the described
holistic-systemic approach makes it possible to
take into account all available subjective and
objective factors of influence on the socio-
political process and to reveal the place of war in
the practice of functioning of different types of
political systems. It should be emphasized that
the holistic-systemic approach involves the
rejection of the development of a universal model
of understanding socio-political processes and
the identification of the leading one among them,
and is based on the principle of methodological
pluralism - the synthesis of different ideas,
methods, and approaches.
The use of the theoretical aspect of system
analysis allowed us to identify and systematize
the main patterns of political systems. The
practical aspect of system analysis can be traced
to the formation of goals, depending on political
regimes and political systems.
Additionally, in the development of connections
between internal conflicts and enemies outside
the political structure, the fundamental roles of
political systems were recognized by the
systemic-functional approach. We were able to
define the goals of the war under totalitarian,
authoritarian, and democratic political systems
thanks to the systemic-target approach.
Based on the analysis presented and the elements
of the term “system” and “war” generally
recognized in the scientific literature, the author's
definitions of these phenomena are presented.
The method of classification allowed to develop
a typology of political systems, and with the help
of grouping and graphical method a single table
of classification of types of political systems
characterized by multivariate was created. Using
the system-resource approach, the author
analyzed the political system of Ukraine under
martial law and identified the resources for
preserving the democratic regime while
countering Russian aggression. The method of
deduction allowed us to identify the causes of the
Russian-Ukrainian war. Using a binary analysis
of the two mutually exclusive political systems
of Ukraine and Russia, the key characteristics of
the war and its development in these political
systems were identified.
In addition to the above approaches, the author
used traditional general scientific methods of
cognition: analysis and synthesis, abstraction;
philosophical methods: dialectical, analytical,
specific historical.
The theoretical basis of the study was formed by
scientific works of Ukrainian and foreign
authors. The search for scientific materials was
carried out using the keywords most often used
in the subject area under study: war, political
systems, war for hegemony, typology of political
systems, the political system of society, the
ontology of war, Russian-Ukrainian war.
Results and Discussion
The paper will use its own generalized definition
of war and the political system. War is the most
large-scale type of external armed violence as a
political phenomenon, which is organized and
uncompromising, implemented by the subjects of
military-political relations with the help of
military means, and implies a special state of
society. Political system - a set and interaction of
political, social, and cultural structures that have
certain norms and values, exercising public
administration and influence on political and
social processes. All of these structures contain
political significance and resources that are
mandatory for acceptance by society. Changes in
one of these structures lead to changes in the
entire system.
War predates the first states and, consequently,
political systems. Wallerstein characterizes the
first pre-state associations of people, or historical
systems, as mini-systems. They were local,
relatively short-lived, and based on an
appropriative economy. These entities were in
constant decline due to environmental disasters
and demographic growth (Piatnytskova, 2021).
The first state formations, regardless of their
further evolution, were of the monarchical type.
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Therefore, consideration should be given to
variables like the irrational desire for power and
the corresponding material capabilities.
War has been preserved in the highest rational
forms of civilization as a relic of barbarism and
savagery. At the same time, it should be
emphasized that public property, equality, and
brotherhood inherent in ancient clans did not
guarantee peace and tranquility. On the contrary,
ancient people were in a state of permanent war.
As is well known, typical political systems of the
world-empire, also characterized as despotic
monarchies or oriental despotisms, functioned
based on tax exploitation of agricultural
communities and subsequent redistribution of
resources among the branched state apparatus. In
view of the above, the main source of profit for
the ruling elite was war, which allowed for the
extensive annexation of additional production
units to the empire. As a result, conquest and
further exploitation became the basis of the
functioning of world empires. Western
civilization emerged much later and in different
natural and climatic conditions, which led to the
emergence of fundamentally different, even
abnormal political systems for the world-empire
of the time. This does not mean, however, that
war did not have a significant impact on the
existence of ancient political entities. Like
typical states, external armed violence was used
for enrichment.
The absence of an effective power mechanism
for domination over European nations led to
fundamental political changes in state formations
and stimulated the emergence of a radically
different world-system - the capitalist world-
economy. The logic of the functioning of
political systems in the new conditions is
changing significantly, now based not on
conquest and exploitation, but on mechanisms
characteristic of market relations. However, war
as a factor in the political process does not
disappear but takes on new forms. Colonial wars
should be considered a new type of war
stimulated by the mechanisms of the world
economy, namely the primary accumulation of
capital, the conquest of resources, and markets. It
is important that the world economy necessarily
involves the formation of a hegemonic state. This
is possible if the challenger does not invest
heavily in building a large army for a long time.
The competition for hegemony ends when these
advantages of one of the contenders allow it to
take a privileged position that is not related to
market mechanisms in the core of the world
system. First of all, this happens during a global
military conflict. In the context of the analyzed
problem, it is important to emphasize that the end
of the struggle for hegemony always involves the
victory of a certain state in the Thirty Years' War.
There are three world wars in history. The first
was the war of 1618-1648, in which the Dutch
hegemony emerged after the victory over the
Habsburg Empire. The second - 1792-1815,
associated with the Napoleonic Wars, the victory
over France, and the establishment of British
hegemony. The third is characterized as the
American-German war of 1914-1945, which
resulted in the emergence of US hegemony.
Obviously, today we are witnessing the fourth
war for hegemony during the Russian-Ukrainian
war.
The typology of political systems is multivariate,
formed under the influence of various factors,
including political, economic, social, and
cultural. Table 1 shows the only classification of
political system types that is currently known.
Table 1.
Typology of political systems
Criteria
Type
Political regime
Totalitarian, authoritarian, democratic
Interaction with the external environment
Open, closed
economic formations-Socio
Primitive, slave, feudal, capitalist, communist
Development of civil society
industrial), modernized-Traditional (pre
Combined approach
Transitional systems containing components of old and
modernized systems
Structural differentiation and secularism
Primitive, traditional, modern
Values
Anglo-American, Continental European, pre-industrial
(industrial), totalitarian
Content and forms of government
Liberal democracy, communist (radical authoritarian),
conservative-traditional, populist, authoritarian
Source: developed by the author based on (Blikhar, 2018)
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The functioning of different political systems is
characterized by common patterns of
development. The first pattern is that of the
balance and pendulum. This means that political
institutions undergo dynamic changes due to the
internal and external circumstances within which
they operate. However, for their proper
functioning, it is necessary to establish a balance
in the subsystems. Due to the influence of
internal and external threats, the political system
seeks to achieve an optimal state of equilibrium
to ensure the normal functioning of the system.
The essence of this pattern is that a political
system that is out of balance must first move to
the opposite state. In addition, deviations in one
direction are as important as deviations in the
opposite direction. The system protects itself.
Political institutions strive for stability and
balance in their activities. There is a correlation
in the political system, where a change in one
component of the system leads to changes in
others. Similar patterns of political system
evolution were noted by scientists Pilgun and
Slutska (2021), who also noted that the political
system is closely linked to the development of
the social, spiritual, and economic sectors. A
political system as a structure, regardless of its
type, has to perform certain functions. First of all,
it is socio-political orientation, expression of
values, unification of social needs, benefits,
interests with the state, development of legal
regulation. In addition to social orientation,
Hnasevych (2018) defined the following political
system functions: stabilization and
legitimization. Since there are many types of
political systems, totalitarian, authoritarian, and
democratic political systems were chosen to
analyze the functioning of war. In a totalitarian
regime, the introduction of war is the main
practical means of building a “new humane
society”, since it is through war that it is possible
to control large masses and carry out propaganda.
According to Zhovtianska (2022), the formation
of democratic principles marked by humanistic
and logical viewpoints, the collapse of
democracy, and the establishment of ideology are
the three factors that contribute to the rise of a
totalitarian dictatorship. The main task of a
totalitarian political system is the war to establish
the absolute political monopoly of the ruling
party government and preserve its social and
national beliefs through bloody terror, mass
repression of the people, internal and external
wars.
A totalitarian political system, according to
Shabanov (2022), always results in the escalation
of civil wars since it is perpetually engaged in
conflict with a "enemy" that may or may not
exist.
Similar in ideological orientation is an
authoritarian political system, which involves the
exercise of state power by a single person or a
limited group. Such persons have unlimited
power and are not subject to laws and society. In
public administration, representatives of the
authoritarian regime use mostly administrative
and forceful methods of exercising power, and at
the same time have no legal responsibility, since
the legislation exists formally.
Skrypniuk (2020), who remarked that society is
based on the ideals that would help to keep
power, noted that he holds the same view. Since
power is in the hands of one person or a limited
circle, opposition and competition are quickly
suppressed in the state. Parties and trade unions
can exist, but with a clear ideology that is
consistent with the political goals of the state. In
a state with an authoritarian political system, the
authorities are not interested in the development
of cultural and spiritual life. For the most part,
public administration is focused on foreign
policy, defense, and the economy. The opposite
political system in terms of ideology and forms
of government is democratic. In this context, it is
important to find out the reasons for the outbreak
of the Russian-Ukrainian war, which is
characterized by two opposing political systems.
The outbreak of the hybrid war was caused by the
imperialism of the Russian Federation, which
perceives other territories and populations as a
resource. The authoritarian political system with
the ideology of violence and weapons on the way
to forming a strong state supports the functioning
of the war. The Russian worldview is based on
the denial of the ideas of democracy and
independence. An equally important reason for
the outbreak of war was the increase in the share
of fossil fuels and money laundering in the war.
The propaganda campaign is a large-scale one,
created to create a positive image of the
authoritarian regime and change the public
opinion of other nations. The war can also be
attributed to the personal interests of the Russian
president and the ineffectiveness of international
organizations.
Russia's political system is characterized by an
undemocratic regime. An analysis of the
functioning of the capitalist world economy
makes it possible to assert that states with similar
political regimes become contenders for
hegemony. For example, Napoleonic France,
Hitler's Germany, and now Putin's Russia tried to
change the established order of things in the
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world by force. There is no doubt that one of the
Kremlin's central objectives is to change the
status of Russia or the entire global political and
economic system. However, we emphasize that
these efforts did not lead to the realization of the
goals set by the aggressor.
We think it's crucial to point out that the
aggression against Ukraine was conducted using
outdated military tactics due to Russia's semi-
peripheral location and technological
disadvantage compared to the countries in the
center.
Vladimir Putin in particular has emphasized
numerous times that his cruise missiles are aimed
at military infrastructure. The United States used
a high-precision space-based targeting system in
the Persian Gulf and Yugoslavia; Russia, on the
other hand, does not. This leads to low hit
accuracy, significant destruction of civilian
infrastructure, and numerous civilian casualties.
It should be emphasized that the tactics of total
war chosen by V. Putin are also completely
outdated. Today, a small, mobile, agile group
armed with the latest equipment can withstand
significantly superior enemy forces. This is fully
confirmed by the failure of the rapid offensive
and Russia's numerous losses in equipment and
manpower. Russia's information campaign that
preceded its aggression against Ukraine also
failed. Unlike in 2014, when the situation was
ambiguous, in 2022 most of the Ukrainian
population did not support Russia's actions. It
should be emphasized that even in the
Southeastern regions, which were considered
loyal to Russia, citizens actively supported the
preservation of their country's sovereignty. It is
clear that this situation was one of the factors
behind the inability of Russian troops to quickly
capture large cities such as Kharkiv, Mariupol,
etc. At the same time, it also encouraged the
Russians to turn to terror tactics and the
systematic destruction of the besieged cities. It
should be emphasized that numerous civilian
casualties, destruction of civilian infrastructure,
and the creation of a humanitarian catastrophe
clearly make the military and political leadership
of Russia and V. Putin personally war criminals.
The Kremlin's thesis about a military threat from
Ukraine or NATO also seems illogical. In today's
realities, there is no practical sense in seizing
territories or resources, especially from a country
with nuclear weapons. Accordingly, the main
factors that pushed the Russian leadership to start
the Russian-Ukrainian war are internal. The
authoritarian political system of the Russian
Federation needs an external enemy to justify the
large number of security forces and repressions
against the opposition. In our opinion, the
personal factor, in particular, the distorted beliefs
and perverse ambitions of Putin and his
entourage, also played an important role. The
political system of Ukraine, operating under the
state of emergency, continues to support the
democratic regime (Figure 1) and protect the
values and freedoms of citizens.
Figure 1. Principles of a democratic regime.
Source: developed by the authors
Democracy
Distribution of state
power Rule of law
Citizens' influence on the
political system Freedom of speech
Protection of minority
rights Presumption of
innocence
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During the full-scale war, society united with the
state to resist Russian aggression and win
(Razumkov Center, 2022), and support from
international organizations and Europe
intensified (Kumar, 2021). Despite a number of
human rights restrictions introduced by law (Law
of Ukraine No. № 389-VIII, 2015) for security
reasons, 63.9% of respondents continue to
support the democratic regime (Ilko Kucheriv
“Democratic Initiatives” foundation, 2023). The
growth of civil society is a crucial component in
supporting Ukraine's democratic system during
the conflict, according to Pilgun and Slutska
(2021). Efteni (2019) placed special emphasis on
how political culture and consciousness emerge.
The employment of numerous diplomatic tools to
end the Russian-Ukrainian war was underlined
by Taranenko (2021). So, war is one of the
leading factors that influenced the emergence of
the first political systems. The key reason for this
process was not objective regularities, but the
rational desire of primitive people to change their
everyday life, to make it more stable and
predictable.
Conclusions
The globalization trends of the late twentieth
century provoked a rethinking of many
phenomena in the academic environment,
including views on the essential foundations and
place of war in the socio-political process. The
article examines the phenomenon of war in the
practice of functioning of different types of
political systems. As a result of the theoretical
study of the topic, the author's definition of the
phenomena of “war” and “political system” was
formed. According to the developed
classification table, there are about 19 types of
political systems, which indicates pluralism. In
this study, the functioning of war is examined on
three models of political systems, grouped by the
political regime - totalitarian, authoritarian, and
democratic. Accordingly, the goals and
objectives of warfare in these three political
systems are defined.
The authors identifies the primary regularities of
political systems based on the analysis of various
political system types, including the
interdependence of all elements within the
political system's structure and the relationship
between the political system and the social,
cultural, economic, and diplomatic spheres.
The key functions of political systems are
analyzed. The political system of Ukraine during
martial law is characterized, the resources for
preserving the democratic regime in the context
of Russia's armed aggression against Ukraine are
identified. Based on the historical retrospective,
the author identifies ten reasons for the outbreak
of a full-scale war. It is substantiated that it is
impossible to explain the reasons for Russia's war
against Ukraine by external factors. The main
factors that pushed the Russian leadership to
aggression are identified as internal - an
authoritarian political system that needs an
external enemy and the personal, distorted beliefs
of the Russian president and his entourage.
Prospects for further development of the topic
include the study of war in the functioning of
other types of political systems.
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