Volume 12 - Issue 64
/ April 2023
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.34069/AI/2023.64.04.33
How to Cite:
Kuchyk, H., Nazarchuk, O., Siroshtan, T., Yanyshyn, O., & Sternichuk, V. (2023). The place and role of political advertising in the
system of manipulative technologies: the linguistic dimension. Amazonia Investiga, 12(64), 315-322.
https://doi.org/10.34069/AI/2023.64.04.33
The place and role of political advertising in the system of
manipulative technologies: the linguistic dimension
El lugar y el papel de la publicidad política en el sistema de tecnologías manipulativas:
la dimensión lingüística
Received: April 1, 2023 Accepted: May 28, 2023
Written by:
Halyna Kuchyk1
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1904-871X
https://www.webofscience.com/wos/author/record/ISV-6006-2023
Oleksandr Nazarchuk2
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2616-6020
ResearcherID Web of Science: HNQ-6492-2023
Tetiana Siroshtan3
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0389-8082
https://www.webofscience.com/wos/author/record/AIA-6936-2022
Olha Yanyshyn4
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2539-7406
https://www.webofscience.com/wos/author/record/ISU-9182-2023
Vita Sternichuk5
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2510-6157
https://www.webofscience.com/wos/author/record/AHD-2546-2022
Abstract
Issues of language and political discourse form a
very dense framework for theories and studies of
argumentation, the new rhetoric. The political
discourse analysis is gaining in scope and
epistemological precision. However, discursive
effects remain largely understudied regarding
linguistic means as manipulative tactics. This
phenomenon shapes the relevance of this study.
It also analyses how linguistic traces of political
discourse affect the population in terms of
psychosociology and manipulative tactics. The
ideology of discursive persuasion reveals issues
in cognitive activity (meaning, intentionality,
and strategy) that the speaker performs, as well
as the impact on a known target. The study
focuses on the norms and use of language, image,
1
PhD in Philology, Associate Professor, Department of Foreign Languages of the Faculty of International Relations, Ivan Franko
National University of Lviv, Lviv, Ukraine.
2
PhD in Historical Sciences, Associate professor of the department of Political Technologies / Director of the PO "Institute of Strategic
Design", Institute of law, Kyiv National Economic University named after Vadym Hetman, Kyiv, Ukraine.
3
PhD in Philology, Associate Professor, Dean of the Philological Faculty, Ukrainian language department, Bogdan Khmelnytskyi
Melitopol State Pedagogical University, Ukraine.
4
PhD in Pedagogical Sciences, Associate Professor, Associate Professor Department of Philology, Institute of Humanities and Public
Administration, Interpreting and Translation Studies, Ivano-Frankivsk National Technical University of Oil and Gas, Ukraine.
5
PhD (Philology), Associate Professor of Foreign and Ukrainian Philology Department, Faculty of digital, educational and social
technologies, Lutsk National Technical University, Ukraine.
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text, and sound in political advertising. It also
analyses scholarly works related to the topic,
offering an analysis based on observations on
political communication and its media staging of
the functioning of sociolinguistic variation
regarding the norms and representations that
operate in this official/dominant language market
and specific to the language of politics. Research
related to advertising and advertising language in
relatively recent studies is still approached with
some caution. Therefore, this paper attempts to
deal with them from the perspective of linguistics
in its broader discussion. To do so, the article
focuses on studying linguistic means specific to
political advertising on billboards during
political campaigns. The most peculiar aspects of
the contextual and formal expression of political
advertising on billboards are identified.
Keywords: manipulative rhetoric, political
discourse, nonverbal means, psycholinguistic
coding, billboard.
Introduction
Advertising has become an integral part of
everyday life, a component that is becoming
increasingly important and diverse. For this
reason, the number of scientific publications on
this topic is also growing. This trend is not
ignored by the branch of linguistics. Language as
a tool of advertising is a very relevant topic for
research, although many works consider only
individual components of advertising language
and refuse the general linguistic volume.
Advertising as a general social phenomenon
cannot be limited to one sphere of human life but
takes its place in society as a whole – thus, it is
always present in politics, economics, culture,
and psychology and is often called propaganda.
In the past, in terms of social manipulation, the
word propaganda has always been synonymous
with advertising.
Today, advertising has become an indispensable
element of political strategies. It is influential in
public life. With this in view, the choice of
rhetorical techniques, their verbal and visual
transposition and their adaption to the cultural
differences of the beneficiaries are vital to
reaching the required acceptance and
interpretation.
This study touches various disciplines
concerning diverse topics in advertising (political
science, communication science, psychology,
sociology, business economics, and political
economy) in order to research advertising from
an interdisciplinary perspective.
The study on political advertising from a
linguistic perspective also deals with studies in
such areas as pragmatics, lexis, and syntax, and
critical contributions to the field of linguistics.
Based on some 336 examples of political
advertising presented in PR political companies,
the paper aims 1) to propose a classification of
the analytical study of this work, political
advertising as an object of study in the field
outside of the limits and scopes of linguistics; 2)
to carry out a typological analysis between
linguistics and all other disciplines dealing with
advertising; 3) to highlight rhetorical techniques,
their verbal and visual implementation, their
assimilation and their interpretation by
recipients.
Theoretical Framework or Literature Review
The manipulative purpose of political advertising
is subject to diverse evaluations. They are
expressed by means of epic/meta-linguistic
Kuchyk, H., Nazarchuk, O., Siroshtan, T., Yanyshyn, O., Sternichuk, V. / Volume 12 - Issue 64: 315-322 / April, 2023
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discourses and generate specific attitudes within
political-media communication (Susser, Roessler
& Nissenbaum, 2019). In addition, political
discourse makes extensive use of grammatical
(syntactic constructions, use of tenses and
temporal devices) and lexical (regionalisms,
archaisms, specific jargon, and other subcultural
lexicons) variations (Addawood, Badawy,
Lerman & Ferrara, 2019).
So, the components of political-media
communication have always been the subject of
all sorts of scholarly debate. According to Van
Peer (2021), the importance of language use
concerning dominant sociolinguistic norms
should not be seen as the result of ubiquitous
political marketing. Oviatt (2021) notes that the
problematic relationship of manipulative norms
is not deprived of powerful interest in terms of
political rhetoric. Noggle (2021) views as the
perception of linguistic phenomena whose
deviant use has the anti-technocratic and anti-
centralizing character of peripheral politics. If
considering political advertising as a
phenomenon of mass media society, it can be
assumed that mass media play an important role
in modern society, especially because of its role
in public communication. Addawood, Badawy,
Lerman & Ferrara (2019) study the relationship
between advertising and the media. Scholars
emphasize that political advertising has the most
important structural influence on the media.
Reisach (2021) analyses political advertising in a
cross-cultural way. Cultures and languages are
different, just as the language of advertising
differs across cultures because it uses different
cultural factors to effectively influence
audiences. According to scholars, the most
important in this differentiation is the degree of
effectiveness comprehension for recipients of
different cultural and linguistic communities.
Citizens of different countries perceive
advertising from other cultures differently. This
is due to the different cultural backgrounds of
their respective ideology. Let us try and achieve
a mutual understanding of this issue.
Proceeding from the hypothesis that different
representations of values are the basis of cultures,
since values are understood as the core of each
culture, the question arises whether recipients of
different cultural backgrounds perceive political
advertising messages differently, and if so, how
they differ. Since advertising these days
increasingly appeals to the feelings of recipients
and carries a manipulative influence, politicians
need to ensure that the actual political advertising
conveys the values of the experience perceived
by the consumer in the desired way because this
is the only way to get their attention (Yarmolyuk,
2022).
To summarize, political companies must
consider the aspect of multinationalism and use a
certain degree of cultural sensitivity in addition
to linguistic knowledge (Di Domenico, Sit,
Ishizaka & Nunan, 2021). In order to
successfully sell a product or service, one has
always resorted to psychology and oratory, and
this is the main success strategy.
Thus, a deep knowledge of emotional values and
the prevailing values of the present and the norms
of society is important for an effective approach
to manipulation through political advertising.
Methodology
The pragmatic perspective, through a thorough
analysis of the manipulative function of language
in political advertising, provides a detailed
description of the language form; it considers
vocabulary, phraseology, syntax, and
punctuation, as well as individual components of
political advertising, such as the title, the text
itself, the slogan, etc., as well as image elements,
which are usually in very close connection with
language and text. In addition to linguistic and
pragmatic tools, specific advertising strategies
that analyse rhetoric, specialized and perceptual
components, play an important role. In general,
political advertising as a socio-psychological and
sociological phenomenon includes all forms of
conscious manipulation of people in relation to
any object. Political advertising is seen as a
means of public and planned message
transmission, when the message influences the
judgment and actions of groups, and thus serves
a party or political bloc to achieve its goals. As
part of the study of the place and role of political
advertising in the system of manipulative
technologies in the linguistic dimension, the
second round of mayoral elections in the cities
was analysed by the monitoring method: Kyiv,
Lviv, Odesa, Kherson, Kamyanets-Podilskyy,
Lutsk, Sumy, Kramatorsk in November 2020 in
Ukraine: (Kyiv - Vitaliy Klychko vs Oleksandr
Popov, Lviv - Andriy Sadovyy vs. Oleh
Synyutka, Odesa - Hennadiy Trukhanov vs.
Mykola Skoryk, Kherson - Ihor Kolokhayev vs.
Volodymyr Saldo, Kamyanets-Podilskyy -
Mykhaylo Positko vs. Volodymyr Melnychenko,
Lutsk - Ihor Polishchuk vs. Bohdan Shyba, Sumy
- Oleksandr Lysenko vs. Vadym Akperov,
Kramatorsk - Oleksandr Honcharenko vs. Andriy
Pankov. All types of political advertising offered
by the candidates to the voters were analysed:
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articles in newspapers, TV spots, booklets, and
most importantly, billboard advertising.
Results and Discussion
Political advertising is always focused on the
recipient. In addition to linguistic manipulations,
PR campaigns intensively use methods of
propaganda of deep psychology. The results of
monitoring and analysing the events and facts of
the election campaign for the local mayoral
elections in November 2020, studying the
programs of speeches, media PR campaigns of
candidates and propaganda on billboards showed
that candidates use all possible methods of
manipulation and argumentation in their election
campaigns to the maximum extent possible.
During the elections, candidates are actively
practising newspaper publishing, cooperation
with radio, FM radio projects, bookbinding and
billboard campaigning (tab.1).
Table 1.
Linguistic and non-linguistic tactics in candidates’ political advertising during the PR company.
The city
The candidates and their
results during elections
Tactics and ways of manipulation
The number of
manipulative
linguistic means
Kyiv
Vitaliy Klychko 47.8%
Print media, TV, debates, slogan,
main text, echo phrase, articles, headline, billboard advertising ruheadline, colo
46
Lviv
Andriy Sadovyy 62.8%
articles, Print media, slogan, headline, rumain text, echo phrase, headline, colo
billboard advertising
39
Odesa
38% Trukhanov yHennadi
Main text, echo phrase, slogan, headline,
billboard advertisingr, ucolo
33
Kherson
30%ev yIhor Kolokha
Slogan, headline comic text, the use of
billboard advertisingnumbers,
27
-anetsyKam yPodilsky
40%lo Positko yMykha
articles, Print media, slogan, headline,
main text, echo phrase, headline
41
Lutsk
37%Ihor Polishchuk
Slogan, headline comic text, the use of
billboard advertisingnumbers,
29
Sumy
42% Oleksandr Lysenko
Articles in newspapers, TV spots,
internet, booklets, billboard advertising
41
Kramatorsk
37%Oleksandr Honcharenko
Main text, echo phrases, slogan,
billboard advertisingr, uheadline, colo
32
Kyiv
Oleksandr Popov 8.6%
Slogan, headline comic text, the use of
billboard advertisingnumbers,
24
Lviv
37.2%Oleh Synyutka
Main text, echo phrase, slogan, headline,
billboard advertisingr, ucolo
43
Odesa
19% Mykola Skoryk
Print media, internet, slogan, headline,
articles, billboard advertising
33
Kherson
17% Volodymyr Saldo
Main text, echo phrase, slogan, headline,
billboard r manipulation, ucolo
advertising
32
-anetsyKam yPodilsky
Volodymyr Melnychenko
35%
Slogan, headline comic text, fear and
panic messages, the use of numbers,
billboard advertising
25
Lutsk
13% ShybaBohdan
Articles in newspapers, internet,
booklets, billboard advertising
27
Sumy
14% Vadym Akperov
Main text, echo phrase, slogan, headline,
billboard r manipulation, ucolo
advertising
22
Kramatorsk
48% Pankov yAndri
spots, Articles in newspapers, TV
booklets, billboard advertising.
41
Table: author’s own development
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The table above shows the multilevel nature of
the influence of the print media, which is
expressed in the use of linguistic and extra-
linguistic components in the process of influence.
If comparing the results of votes for candidates
in percentage, one can see that the more
manipulative language device used by a
candidate in the media, radio, the Internet, and
billboard advertising, the higher the percentage
of votes for the candidate is. Thus, one can talk
about the linguistic potential of influence in
political advertising.
In this aspect, Ihnatenko (2022) analysing a
similar work, writes that if comparing the
advertising of the past with the present, the
following changes are noticeable: if earlier the
language of political advertising was mostly
objective, informative and rational, today it has
become quite emotional. As for the length of
texts, there are also noticeable changes, namely,
advertising messages of the past had a much
longer text length than modern advertising
messages (Hall, Xing, Ross & Johnson, 2021).
One agrees that images in the PR campaigns of
the candidates selected for the study are used
much more often than audio and video messages.
In this regard, researchers have found that the
brain records and processes images better and
more easily than texts, and “in the case of images,
the information to be processed can be encoded
in a dual way, both mentally and verbally”
(Hancock, Naaman, & Levy, 2020). According
to Hacker (2021), the reason is consumer
information overload, and the supply of
information is constantly increasing with new
information providers and new media channels.
According to a research project by Mathur,
Wang, Schwemmer, Hamin, Stewart &
Narayanan (2023) on user consumption and
behaviour, user spends only 2 seconds on an
advertisement, and more than 95% of the
information in an advertisement does not reach
the target audience. Political advertising had to
adapt to the situation and, with the help of
experienced linguists and psychologists,
manipulate with images and short but to-the-
point messages (Lorenz-Spreen, Lewandowsky,
Sunstein & Hertwig, 2020).
The traditional approach to persuasion through
political advertising is coming to an end. In this
context, Helberger, Dobber & de Vreese (2021)
emphasize the importance of the Internet. The
Internet represents a new solution for politicians,
such as advertising outlets, agencies, and media,
capable to influence the masses. Online publics
represent a new interactive medium. There
candidates and voters can interact directly
(Karpitskaya & Chuyanava, 2021). While there
is some debate about this, visualization and
constant attention-grabbing through billboards
have a much stronger manipulative,
subconscious influence than the Internet (Fig. 1).
Figure 1. Critical aspects of the contextual and formal expression of political advertising on billboards.
Figure: author’s own development
The figure highlights the descriptive methods
applied to the linguistic analysis level of the
political PR campaign in the November 2020
mayoral elections. The most important aspects of
the contextual and formal expression of political
advertising on billboards are identified. These are
Party name, candidate’s own photo,
slogan, title and content; text and
image
Text size, text configuration, and
typography
Linguistic elements such as
vocabulary, stylistics, rhetoric, and
syntax
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the linguistic elements of advertising, such as the
name of the party, the candidate’s own photo, the
slogan, the title and content; the text and images;
text size, text configuration and typography; as
well as linguistic descriptive elements, such as
vocabulary, stylistics, rhetoric and syntax.
Already in the 1960s, the language of advertising
was widely considered as an object of study in
linguistics (Nenadić, 2019). Specialized
linguistic works on the language of advertising
and linguistic descriptive studies are linguistic
phenomena at the level of lexis, syntax and
stylistics that, based on political texts, analysed
aspects of vocabulary, word choice, parts of
speech, semantic redefinition, syntax, rhetorical
devices, as well as the impact of the language of
advertising (Petre, Duffy & Hund, 2019). A
political advertising campaign is characterized
during its development mainly by a number of
dimensions of action in the advertising system:
the initial phase, where the candidate contacts
advertising agencies; the production phase,
where advertising agencies go through all the
stages of advertising design and advertising
concept; the distribution phase, where the final
campaigns are promoted through various
advertising sources; the reception phase, which
includes two areas of “reception” and “effect”;
and the fifth phase is the processing phase, where
the feedback of the received manipulative
message is expected. Word, image, sound and
symbol are the means of communication that
contribute to the presentation and development
of political advertising messages. Among the
various means of promotion, visualization and
constant contact with advertising, and in this
case, billboards, takes the first place, and the
analysis model is based on the use of verbal and
nonverbal linguistic means. Impressions of the
image, combined with a professionally selected
test, generate a second artificial reality in the
recipient, which mostly consists of “internal
images”. Political advertising on billboards has a
strong influence on the recipient’s future
behavior. One more important category in this
aspect is the political text within diplomatic
activities. According to Kuchyk & Kuchyk
(2022) the manipulative meaning in political
texts should be analised in terms of in political
linguistics. Its manipulative potential in political
communication within political and diplomatic
activities of multilateral cooperation is of great
importance.
In this context, images are particularly effective.
They can be symbols, written forms and font
size, colour, or a picture of a person. When
creating political advertising, certain criteria
should be followed (Ryabchenko, Katermina &
Malysheva, 2019). According to Vasishth &
Gelman (2021), the first criterion is the choice of
colours (or it can also be colourless). First of all,
it is necessary to decide whether to create an
advertisement in black and white or multicolour
format. The second important criterion when
creating an advertisement is the choice of the
format (Silva et al., 2020). In this case, the
principle applies that smaller ads attract less
advertising effect. Exceptional ad formats, such
as round or star shapes, are more likely to grab
the reader’s attention.
The results of this study showed that the order of
placement.
Table 2.
Ways of forming new linguistic terms in political discourse
Changes in vocabulary composition
Formation of new linguistic signs by word formation
Genesis of word formation
Combination of lexemes and morphemes
Neologisms
Authors’ neologisms
Table: author’s own development
Similar to the advertising industry, which is
constantly changing, the vocabulary of political
advertising is not a consistent inventory but is
constantly updated and changed due to the
constant need for new linguistic elements. The
need for new linguistic terms can be satisfied in
two ways: either in the vocabulary or in the new
words formation. New terms in the dictionary
appear by combining existing linguistic signs
with new meanings or by forming new linguistic
signs through word formation, namely by
forming new word roots. In word formation, this
is achieved by forming new words from existing
and known lexemes and morphemes.
Neologisms can interest the readers of an
advertisement in a certain aspect and thus attract
attention. According to Sætra & Mills (2022),
derivatives that deviate from the norm or
contradict the rules of existing formation models
are particularly suitable for this purpose. Thus,
words have an expressive character. According
to Saurwein & Spencer-Smith (2020), stylistic
figures fall into three broad categories:
grammatical elements (nominal or verbal),
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vocabulary elements (complex, limited,
picturesque), and text structure elements
(interesting, boring, descriptive). An important
aspect of this study is to identify and analysed the
rhetorical figures of advertising speech, to find
out what is meant by rhetoric in political
discourse. The main goal of any form of
advertising is manipulation. In this sense,
rhetorical figures are used, which undoubtedly
develop a great appealing character. Rhetorical
figures are “deviations from the normal sequence
of linguistic elements”.
As for syntax, it is considered that political
language prefers simple and short sentences. A
possible reason is given by Hacker (2021) in his
work, namely, that it’s not logical to trust
complex sentences to the quick-witted and
inattentive reader.
Consequently, the manipulative aspect of
political advertising in an anthropological-
cultural and economic context is expressed
through linguistic pragmatics.
In today's globalized world, effective advertising
depends on such aspects as politics, economics,
law, religion, culture, standard of living, level of
education, and people’s language. An example of
this is the linguistic strategies of political
advertising. They can vary greatly from one
language to another because political discourse
depends on culture, so there may be differences
in economic systems, value orientations, and
traditions, which are reflected in the linguistic
means of style.
Conclusions
Having shown the peculiarities of political
discourse rhetorical concept, it is possible to
better understand the social problems of the
concept “manipulation”. By “manipulation” one
understands the idea of massive and constant
influence on consciousness through advertising,
media, television, etc., rather than attempts at
disinformation or destabilization. Manipulation
is always linked to a specific historical context,
which sees a combination of large-scale
propaganda efforts and the rise of mass media
based on simplistic behaviorism. It is the
expansion of this concept, from political
propaganda to manipulation tactics that shows its
inaccurate and generalized nature.
In political terms, public discourse is not as
relevant as face-to-face pressure;
morphologically, it is the shape of the audiences
that determines the discourse, not the discourse
that determines the shape of the audiences. In this
paper, one considers the pragmatic aspect of
linguistics to be the basic one in analysing the
manipulative impact of political advertising.
Pragmatics has evolved into an empirical
discipline, so that it increasingly integrates
different language dimensions.
Pragmalinguistics, psycholinguistics, and
sociolinguistics are linguistic disciplines that
analysed language signs in terms of their use by
language users. In terms of advertising-
pragmatic relations, pragmatics analyses the
relationship between the advertising message and
the recipients of the advertising message in the
context of advertising. It analyses how the
advertising message reaches the recipients and
how they interpret it. The pragmatic aspect of
political advertising concerns the effect of
advertising messages of an idealistic, realistic or
stereotypical nature or representations of foreign
cultural practices. The analysis of political
advertising on billboards during the November
2020 mayoral elections evaluated that the
essence of the manipulative strategy is to form a
positive emotional perception of the advertising
text by the recipient. The design of billboards
emphasizes optional components and is carried
out with the help of linguistic and extralinguistic
manipulative tactics. They are formally
implemented through the use of certain nominal
units and a specific compositional structure of the
political advertising text.
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