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DOI: https://doi.org/10.34069/AI/2023.62.02.1
How to Cite:
Yazgin, Y. (2023). Reflections of Levant and Mesopotamia gods and goddess on Cyprus cylinder seals. Amazonia Investiga, 12(62),
10-32. https://doi.org/10.34069/AI/2023.62.02.1
Reflections of Levant and Mesopotamia gods and goddess on Cyprus
cylinder seals
LEVANT VE MEZOPOTAMYA TANRI VE TANRIÇALARININ KIBRIS SİLİNDİR
MÜHÜRLERİ ÜZERİNDEKİ YANSIMALARI
Received: January 12, 2023 Accepted: March 22, 2023
Written by:
Yücel Yazgin1
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3489-771X
Abstract
The aim of the research is to determine the
similarities between the Cyprus and Levant &
Mesopotamian cylinder seals, on which god and
goddess figures are engraved on them. The research
is important in terms of showing the effects and
similarities of mainland cultures and artistic
products through Levant & Mesopotamian
mainland and Cyprus island cultures. The research
stems from a case study model, which will involve
qualitative research methods. Visual analysis was
carried out in two stages. In the first stage, 67 seal
images were given to six creative education experts.
Experts stated that there are figures of a god and
goddess on 34 cylinder seals. In the second stage,
34 seal images were examined by three visual arts
experts. The infographic analyses have shown that
the god-goddess figures on the Levant &
Mesopotamian and Cyprus cylinder seals are
similar or bear close resemblances. This result
shows that ancient civilisations shared the material
and spiritual values of the culture in a "fluid and
sticky" character. This sharing feature should be
accepted, supported and protected as a guide to the
way of living together, which today's people need.
Keywords: Cylinder seals, Cyprus, god, goddess,
Levant & Mesopotamia, religion.
Introduction
The first human being existence in Cyprus was
mentioned to be in 12,000 BC (Simons, 2012).
The places where human beings were present,
can be mentioned to be in the Late Epipaleolithic
period, on the island of Cyprus, were
Aetokremnos and Akamas. Throughout the
history, islands have always been influenced by
1
Assoc. Prof. Dr., Near East University, Faculty of Fine Arts and Design, Department of Plastic Arts, Nicosia, Cyprus.
the life on the mainland and continents close to
them. After the occupation of the people, on the
mainland, signs of human existence on the island
of Cyprus, were found in the archaeological
studies carried out in Aetokremnos (Swiny,
2001). According to the findings obtained from
these archaeological settlements, the first settled
Yazgin, Y. / Volume 12 - Issue 62: 10-32 / February, 2023
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human life on the island, began in the Neolithic
Age (8500-3900 BC in the New Polished Stone
Age) in these two settlements (Karageorghis,
2002). The human being presence on the island
before the Late Epipaleolithic period continued
also in the Palaeolithic periods. The seals were
produced to perform tasks such as identifying
identity, determining property, representing
persons, conveying a message, and carrying a
talisman feature. In particular, it is seen that, the
relations between kings and gods or goddess
were reflected in the engravings on the seals. The
first examples of seals used on the island of
Cyprus were found during excavations at
Kissonerga-Mosphilia and Lemba-Lakkous. The
seal found at Kissonerga-Mosphilia is a Late
Chalcolithic Age IV limestone seal, with
diagonal lines engraved on it. Another example
is the seal with linear and curvilinear motifs
found in Area II at Lemba-Lakkous. (Webb &
Weingarten, 2012; Reyes, 2001).
The Neolithic Age in Cyprus is dated
approximately between 7000 BC and 3000 BC.
The same period covers the years 8200-3900 BC,
according to Karageorghis. The Chalcolithic
period is dated to be 3900-2500 BC
(Karageorghis, 2002). According to Kyrris, the
Early Bronze Age on the island is dated between
3000-1800 BC (Kyrris, 1985). Karageorghis
accepts this period to be between 2500-1900 BC
and divides it into three periods, as Early Bronze
Age I-II and III (Karageorghis, 2002). After the
Early Bronze Age, the Middle and Late Bronze
Ages took place on the island of Cyprus. But
again, according to the same sources, these ages
are dated between 1900 BC and 1050 BC. The
seals examined in this study consist of seals
obtained from Late Bronze Age settlements in
Cyprus. The settlement areas mentioned are
Enkomi, Hagia Irene, Kition, Kalavasos-Ayios
Dimitrios, Ankastina, Toumba Tou Skourou,
Dromolaxia-Vyzakia (Hala Sultan Tekke).
The use of cylinder seals in Cyprus, along with
the Middle East, took place between the end of
3000 BC and the beginning of 2000 BC (Reyes,
2001). According to the data obtained from the
dating of cylinder seals obtained from
archaeological excavations and exhibited in
museums, the use of cylinder seals in Cyprus
dates back to 3000 BC (Karageorghis, 2002). In
this research, the cylinder seals used in Cyprus,
engraved with images of gods or goddess, will be
investigated and compared with the images of
gods or goddess engraved/drawn on different
materials in Levant & Mesopotamian cultures.
In this research, seals with images of god or
goddess on the archaeological cylinder seals used
in Cyprus and exhibited in Cyprus archaeology
museums, British Museum, John Hopkins
Museum, Medelhavsmuseet and the
Metropolitan Museum's Cyprus artifacts sections
were investigated. For this purpose, two hundred
and fourteen (214) cylinder seals were visually
analysed in order to identify seals having human
body images (god and goddess) on them. With
this method, it was aimed to investigate how
many different gods or goddess images were
engraved on the cylinder seals. In this context,
the similarities with the images of gods or
goddess in Levant & Mesopotamian cultures
were examined.
Therefore, in the context of god or goddess
images on archaeological cylinder seals, it is
aimed to determine the similarities and
differences between the spiritual-cultural
structure of the country and the spiritual culture
of Levant & Mesopotamian cultures.
This research is based on the seals used in the
archaeological periods on the island of Cyprus.
Research is important because it aims to
determine the diversification of god or goddess
images on seals, which has not been investigated
as a primary subject in studies conducted until
today and to examine them in a categorising
mode. In addition, to the fact that there are
connections regarding the images of gods or
goddess, their engravement or drawings on
different materials in neighbouring cultures are
also within the scope of the research and this
increases the importance of the research.
The fact that cylinder seals were used in a limited
region in the world (Levant & Mesopotamia and
cultures around the Mediterranean) and for a
limited time (approximately between 3000-500
BC) makes them highly important. In the context
of their importance, in those days; the fact that
they were the best examples of art of relief,
engraving and printmaking, creates the need to
introduce them to the world and puts them on the
agenda of today's art research.
It is thought that they deserve to be known more
closely by today's artists and researchers because
of their important place in both art and social life
and trade of that period.
The subject of this research is limited to the
archaeological cylinder seals used in Cyprus,
which are exhibited in the archaeology museums
in Cyprus and in the sections of the British
Museum at John Hopkins Museum,
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Medelhavsmuseet and the Metropolitan Museum
where artifacts related to Cyprus are exhibited. In
addition to the above limitations, another
limitation is experienced, and that is, because the
seals in museums located outside of Cyprus are
included in the research, by using the web pages
of the museums as an only possible source.
Unfortunately visiting the museums abroad was
not possible because of the Covid 19 pandemic,
and this also created a limitation to this study.
Method
This research was conducted as a qualitative case
study. The seals used in Cyprus were selected
based on those engraved with god and goddess
images. These images were examined through
iconographic and content analysis, categorizing
them and comparing them to images of gods and
goddess on cylinder seals from neighboring
cultures. The iconographic approach, a
qualitative research technique, was used to reveal
the customary meanings of motifs, allegories,
and personalizations that are no longer available
in today's societies. This approach emphasizes
that images characterized as iconographic should
be evaluated within the context of the society,
audience, history, and period they are associated
with. Content analysis, on the other hand,
involves the explanation of images through
coding or using codes in order to ensure the
scientific validity of the images. Thus, it is a
technique that allows the researcher to approach
reality without prejudices about the subject being
studied. For these reasons, both iconographic and
content analysis techniques were employed in
this research (Bedir Erişti, 2019). In addition, the
images comprising the study's sample were
analyzed using the "visual analysis method."
During the data acquisition and analysis process,
214 seals were collected and included in the
sample. Among these seals, those on display at
the British Museum, John Hopkins Museum,
Medelhavsmuseet, and the Metropolitan
Museum were accessed through the museums'
websites and their visuals were obtained.
Photographs of the specimens on display in
Paphos, Larnaca, Nicosia, Limassol Archeology
Museum, Morphou Archeology and Nature
Museum were taken. The researcher visually
analyzed the printed images of the 214 seals
comprising the sample in terms of the imagery
engraved on them. This sample was selected to
include seals used and exhibited in Cyprus, and
the dataset was limited by this exhibition
criterion. As a result of visual analysis, human or
human-bodied images were found on 67 seals.
These seal images, comprising a limited sample,
were tabulated with images of Levantine and
Mesopotamian gods and goddess. Paintings
consisting of seal images and god and goddess
images were presented to six creativity education
specialists for validity and reliability testing, and
they were asked to identify which god or goddess
images were on each seal.
Six creativity education experts identified gods
and goddess on 34 seals from the Levantine and
Mesopotamian regions out of the 67 seals. In the
second stage of expert opinion collection, the 34
seals identified by the creativity education
experts were presented to three visual arts
professionals. The visual arts professionals were
asked to determine how many seals had "definite
similarity" and "likelihood similarity" in terms of
the gods and goddess depicted on them.
Based on the opinions of the visual arts
professionals, a comparison was made with seals
from neighboring cultures of Cyprus, where
similar images of gods and goddess are known to
exist.
Belief System Process in Cyprus
Cyprus is located in a geographical location that
can be considered the centre of the old world
(Asia-Africa-European continents). This
important geographical position has caused it to
maintain its strategic importance throughout the
ages and today. In addition to the strategic
importance of Cyprus due to its location, another
feature that is at least as important as location is
that it is adjacent to the geography where
monotheistic religions originated. Cyprus has
been a frequent destination for a very high
percentage of those who want to reach the region
where monotheistic religions originated, known
as the holy lands. The emergence of monotheistic
religions in this region is not accidental. It is
important that the history of human life has not
been interrupted in this geography by periods of
warming and cooling of the earth. “From the first
days of human being existence in the world; he
has formed belief systems by establishing
emotional ties with especially with very strong
phenomena. That time of human being was
worshipping to the phenomena that he was not
having any idea why it happened or why it is so.
For example, thunder, rain fall and many similar
natural events, or a high mountain or a tall tree
that he cannot climb or a very fruitful tree were
the things that they were out of their imagination
though they were accepting them as go or
goddess. (Hançerlioğlu, 2005).” The religion
originated from the weakness of the first human
being because of the forces of nature (Teber,
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2013). Ancient religions have tried to be defined
and understood by today's people, with the
contribution of the writings and archaeological
findings on the written materials of those periods.
They also found new rituals as new data become
available. The materials providing these data, are
the findings obtained from the cultures lived
mostly around Mesopotamia and the
Mediterranean. The findings obtained during the
research, on the cultures of this region, play an
active role in defining the religious structure of
that period in other parts of the world. In the light
of these data, Demirci, in his book titled
"Introduction to Ancient Levant &
Mesopotamian Religions"; “We know that
ancient Levant & Mesopotamian beliefs were
largely based on animistic and naturistic
foundations,” he says. Many phenomena in
nature are associated and equipped with either
divine power or creatures with demonic
character, or structures with supernatural vitality
such as 'mana' (Demirci, 2013, p. 12). During this
period, settlements (cities) belonging to different
cultures that lived in Levant & Mesopotamia had
their own gods. The gods who have undertaken
the same tasks could be named in different ways
between cultures and cities. It should also be
noted that the religions in these cultures do not
limit the relationships between gods and humans
to a simple and archaic order. The relations
between gods and humans of this period has
developed very rich ideas with a lifestyle fed by
the religious structure, such as the universal
order, systems of worship, dedication and
sacrifice, rituals and its place in the creation of
man. With the animistic and naturistic approach
in the form of religious thought, people living in
Levant & Mesopotamian cultures engraved or
drew the images of the gods as human bodies on
the surfaces they worked on. In Cyprus, which
was in interrelationship with Levant &
Mesopotamian cultures, during the periods when
this way of thinking continued, the images of
gods on the cylinder seals, where religious scenes
were studied, were also engraved in the same
way. In addition, the Mitanni winged sun disk,
one of the religious symbols, is among the
common forms engraved on cylinder seals
(Bender, 2007). In this context, it should be
stated that they show close similarities.
As stated in the introduction of the research, the
first human existence in Cyprus was mentioned
since 12,000 BC (Simons, 2012). The places
where the human presence can be mentioned in
the Late Epipaleolithic period on the island of
Cyprus are Aetokremnos and Akamas.
Throughout the history, the islands have always
been influenced by life on the continents or
motherlands close to them. Signs of human being
existence on the island of Cyprus, were found by
the occupation of people on the mainland with
the archaeological studies carried out in
Aetokremnos (Swiny, 2001).
It is thought that the belief system on the island,
whose existence was determined after the above-
mentioned years, is also related to the mainland
and neighbouring cultures.
According to the data obtained from the findings
reached today, the oldest known belief system of
Cyprus is the 'Mother Goddess Cult'. The
concrete assets of this belief system, which is
dating back to the 8th millennium BC, are the
conical stones found in many excavations. The
belief system of the Mother Goddess was
structured in Eastern cultures and spread into
Western cultures. The belief system philosophy
(belief, worship, ritual structuring) of the Mother
Goddess, which is given different names in
Eastern and Western cultures, overlaps with the
Eastern and Western culture’s philosophy at a
very high level (Frankfort, 1939).
The Mother goddess, named in different forms
according to cultures, was also imaged in
different forms in this context. This structure,
which constitutes the belief systems of the
regional cultures in today's conditions, has also
been adopted by the people living in Cyprus who
were in contact with them. For representation of
this belief system, which we can say came from
outside with the influence of the mainland,
Cypriots have placed and continue to keep the
conical stones in place of the Mother Goddess
since the Neolithic age. These stones were found
in archaeological excavations carried out in
many Neolithic and Bronze Age settlements,
most intensely in Hirokitia excavations
(Bağışkan, 2015).
It is possible to say that, it is the Mother Goddess
Cult who adapted to Cyprus, the oldest belief
system of the people in Cyprus. The system had
relations with the Anatolian, Eastern
Mediterranean, Egyptian and Levant &
Mesopotamian cultures. This is thought so
because since those dates are the times of the
mentioned cultures. Worship systems to the
Mother Goddess have appeared in many cultures
around the Mediterranean and in Levant &
Mesopotamian cultures. It took different names
according to the culture in which it is accepted.
Mother Goddess, “Kubaba” in Hittites, “Isis” in
Egypt, “Kybebe” in Lydia, “Kybele” in Phrygia,
“Inanna” in Sumer, “Artemis” in Greece,
“Astarte” in Syria and Babylonian sources
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(“Astart” or “Ishtar”) (Ishtar is also referred to as
“Savshga” in Hittite sources), “Ishtar” in
Phoenician sources, “Artemis (from Ephesus)” in
Ephesus, “Kouklia (Paphos) Aphrodite” in
Cyprus. She also worshipped as “Venus” by the
Romans and “Virgin Mary” in the Christian era.
Images symbolising her in paintings and
engravings; the moon, star, dove, Eurasian
collared dove, sparrow, myrtle tree and rose
(Bağışkan, 2015).
It is possible to say that with the cult of the
Mother Goddess, which is the oldest known
belief system in Cyprus, the islanders who
formed the system increased their
communication between the cultures of the
region with the opportunity to travel in the
following years. The people of Cyprus, who have
been in the common belief system of the cultures
of the region with the same cult since 8000 BC,
intensified their relations with the cultures in the
nearby geography with the improvement in trade
in the region. In this context, cylinder seals,
which were an important element of the trade of
that period, it has been circulated among the
cultures of the region, both as seals and as seal
impressions on clay. It is also believed that
cylinder seals, which can be hang in the form of
a necklace on the neck and engraved with a god
or goddess have a talisman feature that ensures
success in trade.
Due to the intensifying relations of the Cypriot
people, who have had partnerships with
neighbouring cultures, since the first belief
system; it is possible to say that, there are also
similarities in the figures of gods and goddess
engraved on cylinder seals brought to the island,
produced on the island, or on which additional
figures were worked on, after being brought to
the island. In addition, it is thought that there are
similarities in the figures of gods and goddess on
the seals made by the masters who made seals on
the island (Yazgın, 2017).
In order to determine these similarities, the
cylinder seals in the samples of the research were
visually examined. The similarities of the gods
and goddess figures on the seals in Levant &
Mesopotamian cultures and Cyprus cylinder
seals were determined by the visual analysis
method. Cylinder seals used in Cyprus between
3000-600 BC, which has exactly similar god and
goddess figures on them, and seals used in
Levant & Mesopotamian cultures between about
the same time span, were also determined and the
figures on them were compared.
The Cyprus Seals Engraved with Human-
Bodied Images
Two hundred and fourteen (214) seals exhibited
in the archaeology museums in Cyprus and in the
sections of the British Museum, John Hopkins
Museum, Medelhavsmuseet and the
Metropolitan Museum where artifacts related to
Cyprus are exhibited have been examined in
terms of images engraved on them. As a result of
this examination, sixty-seven (67) seals with
human body images engraved on them, were
found to be in accordance with the limitation and
criteria expressed in the sample and visual
analyses made. The author photographed images
from 20 to 44 both included, Maria Soutzi
photographed image 49 and Orkem Yazgın
photographed image 67.
Table 1.
Photographs of cylinder seals visually analysed.
Image 1: (Christos, n.d.)
Image 2: (Christos, n.d.)
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Image 3: (Cylinder Seal; Intaglio | British
Museum, n.d.)
Image 4: (Cylinder Seal | British Museum, n.d.)
Image 5: (Cylinder Seal; Intaglio | British
Museum, n.d.)
Image 6: (Cylinder Seal | British Museum, n.d.)
Image 7: (Cylinder Seal | British Museum, n.d.)
Image 8: (Cylinder Seal | British Museum, n.d.)
Image 9: (Cylinder Seal | British Museum, n.d.)
Image 10: (Cylinder Seal | British Museum, n.d.)
Image 11: (Cylinder Seal | British Museum, n.d.)
Image 12: (Cylinder Seal | British Museum, n.d.)
Image 13: (Cylinder Seal | British Museum, n.d.)
Image 14: (Cylinder Seal | British Museum, n.d.)
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Image 15: (Cylinder Seal | British Museum, n.d.)
Image 16: (Cylinder Seal | British Museum, n.d.)
Image 17: (Cylinder Seal | British Museum, n.d.)
Image 18: (Cylinder Seal | British Museum, n.d.)
Image 19: (Cylinder Seal | British Museum, n.d.)
Image 20: (The Cyprus Museum, n.d.)
Image 21: (The Cyprus Museum, n.d.)
Image 22: (The Cyprus Museum, n.d.)
Image 23: (The Cyprus Museum, n.d.)
Image 24: (The Cyprus Museum, n.d.)
Image 25: (The Cyprus Museum, n.d.)
Image 26: (The Cyprus Museum, n.d.)
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Image 27: (The Cyprus Museum, n.d.)
Image 28: (The Cyprus Museum, n.d.)
Image 29: (The Cyprus Museum, n.d.)
Image 30: (The Cyprus Museum, n.d.)
Image 31: (The Cyprus Museum, n.d.)
Image 32: (The Cyprus Museum, n.d.)
Image 33: (The Cyprus Museum, n.d.)
Image 34: (The Cyprus Museum, n.d.)
Image 35: (The Cyprus Museum, n.d.)
Image 36: (The Cyprus Museum, n.d.)
Image 37: (The Cyprus Museum, n.d.)
Image 38: (The Cyprus Museum, n.d.)
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Image 39: (The Cyprus Museum, n.d.)
Image 40: (The Cyprus Museum, n.d.)
Image 41: (The Cyprus Museum, n.d.)
Image 42: (The Cyprus Museum, n.d.)
Image 43: (The Cyprus Museum, n.d.)
Image 44: (The Cyprus Museum, n.d.)
Image 45: (admin, n.d.)
Image 46: (2023)
Image 47: (Christos, n.d.)
Image 48: (Christos, n.d.)
Image 49: (Christos, n.d.)
Image 50: (Cylinder Seal and Modern Impression:
Demons and Animals | Late Cypriot II, n.d.)
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Image 51: (Cylinder Seal and Modern Impression:
Seated Figure Holding the Tail of a Griffin |
Cypriot | Late Cypriot II, n.d.)
Image 52: (Cylinder Seal and Modern Impression:
Female Figure, Ibex, Lion | Cypriot | Late Cypriot
II, n.d.)
Image 53: (Cylinder Seal and Modern Impression:
Hunter Spearing a Lion before Deity with Staff |
Middle Bronze Age, n.d.)
Image 54: (Cylinder Seal and Modern Impression:
King before Nude Winged Goddess above Snake;
Weather God on Bull | Cypriot | Late Cypriot I-II,
n.d.)
Image 55: (Cylinder Seal and Modern Impression:
Combat between Men and a Lion | Cypriot | Late
Cypriot II, n.d.)
Image 56: (Cylinder Seal and Modern Impression:
Mistress of Animals Flanked by Rampant Horned
Animals | Cypriot | Late Cypriot II, n.d.)
Image 57: (Cylinder Seal | Cypriot | Late Cypriot,
n.d.)
Image 58: (Cylinder Seal | Cypriot | Late Cypriot
II, n.d.)
Image 59: (Cylinder Seal and Modern Impression:
Human Figure Flanked by Sphinxes, Birds |
Cypriot | Late Cypriot II, n.d.)
Image 60: (Cylinder Seal and Modern Impression:
Master of Animals between Lions, Griffins,
Minoan Genius | Late Cypriot II, n.d.)
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Image 61: (Cylinder Seal | Cypriot | Late Cypriot,
n.d.)
Image 62: (Cylinder Seal and Modern Impression:
Animal-Headed Divinities with Prey | Cypriot |
Late Cypriot II, n.d.)
Image 63: (Cylinder Seal and Modern Impression:
Confronted Upright Lion and Griffin before a
Seated Figure | Cypriot | Late Cypriot II, n.d.)
Image 64: (Cylinder Seal | Cypriot | Late Cypriot
II, n.d.)
Image 65: (Cylinder Seal | Cypriot | Late Cypriot,
n.d.)
Image 66: (Cylinder Seal | Cypriot | Late Cypriot,
n.d.)
Image 67: (Archeology and Natural History
Museum, n.d.)
Findings and Interpretation
In the first step of the visual analyses, 67 Cyprus
cylinder seal images, having human figures on
them, are given to six creative education experts
and asked them to analyse these seals under the
fixed measures and criteria. Experts were asked
to select seals with god-goddess figures and find
out which Levant & Mesopotamian god or
goddess they were. In this comparing study the
book of William Hayes Wards (1910) book “The
seal Cylinders of Western Asia” is used as the
main source. The experts, naturally, used other
sources in their study. They found-out that the
god & goddess figures on Levant &
Mesopotamian and Cyprus seals have very close
similarities, and on both group of seals similar
figures were carved.
The experts stated that on 34, cylinder seals out
of 67, there are images of Levant &
Mesopotamian god & goddess. Especially on the
non-worn and perfect seals the similarities were
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decisive but they had some little doubts on worn-
out ones.
The 34 seal images selected by the creative
education experts are presented to three visual art
professionals for the second stage of this study
and analysis. One of the professionals found out
that 24 seals were having god & goddess images
decisively similar to the Levant & Mesopotamia
gods. He also said that the images on the rest 10
seals, selected by the creative education experts,
not decisively but probably are similar to Levant
& Mesopotamian gods. The second professional
found 21 seals containing gods similar to Levant
& Mesopotamian gods and the third professional
said 27 of them have decisive similarities and on
7 of the seals have possible but doubtful
similarities.
The images, “possibly not showing” similarities
may be because of the carving artist’s mode of
design or because the seals have worn out. As a
final statement, we can say that the god or
goddess figures on the seals are similar to those
in Levant & Mesopotamian culture at a high rate.
Table 2.
The order of the images is from exact similar to most likely to be similar.
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(Department of Antiquities - Museums, n.d.)
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Arguments and Suggestions
In this research, the cylinder seals of Cyprus
having god and goddess images on them are
identified. Here, comparisons are made between
the samples of cylinder seals of different cultures
and regions of Levant & Mesopotamia. As a
result of this comparison, it is found-out that the
images on Cyprus and Levant & Mesopotamian
cylinder seals showed close similarities
regarding their religious belief systems.
On the cylinder seals used in Cyprus god and
goddess figures are found that, they were the
images of god and goddess of the cultures of
Levant & Mesopotamia like, Sumerians,
Assyrians, Akkadians, Hittites, Babylonians and
Kassites, the 17 god and goddess names are listed
below as:
1. The drinking goddess on a stool.
2. The naked goddess, Ishara.
3. The god with a wand (Ramman-Martu}
4. The standing goddess with rised hands (Aa
or Sala)
5. The vested god, probably Tarkhu, Sandu or
Khaldis.
6. The seated, bearded god, Shamas.
7. The naked goddess with the hands below her
breasts (Zirbanit)
8. The god with the scimitar (Marduk)
9. The god with Thunderbolt and Bull (Adad)
10. The goddess of agriculture.
11. The archaic seated Deities.
12. The god rising over a mountain (Shamas)
13. The standing Ishtar.
14. Gilgamesh as a standard listener.
15. The eagle-headed god.
16. The serpent god (Siru)
17. The seated goddess (Baru – Gula)
Besides, winged demon, which is very important
in Assyrian culture of Mesopotamia ana Egypt -
Hittite belief systems and in their mythology, is
found on Cyprus cylinder seals. The dragon
figure of Assyrian in Babylonian cultures is also
found on Cyprus cylinder seals. Also, Gilgamesh
figure, with wings and alike to “winged Satan”
figures of Assyrian culture, found on Cyprus
cylinder seals. Babylonian type Tiamat figure
(The Dragon) is another figure found on Cyprus
seals.
There are many researchers studying the
similarities between the Cyprus and Levant &
Mesopotamian spiritual cultures, covering the
years BC 3000-600, about the carvings worked
on the cylinder seals.
For example:
Tsouparopoulou (2014) Progress Report: In his
“An Outline of the Documentation of Seals,
Sealings and Seal Impressions in Ancient Near
East”, Akkadian seal (image 68) Goddess Ishtar
and God Shamas, Old Babylonian seals (image
69), God Marduk, (image 70) Goddess Zirbanit
and God Rammon-Martu and (image 71) again
the Goddess Zirbanit and the God Ishtar are
taking place.
Image: 68 (Tsouparopoulou, 2014)
Image: 69 (Tsouparopoulou, 2014)
Image: 70 (Tsouparopoulou, 2014)
Image: 71 (Tsouparopoulou, 2014)
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Black and Green (2004), in their book, Demons
and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia, they
informed that, on a Neo Assyrian seal the
Gilgamesh figure is carved. Also, Ghaempanah
and others (2014) in their paper they published,
informed that on a Babylonian seal the figures of
Gilgamesh and Enkidu are carved.
Image: 72 (Black and Green, 2004)
Image: 73 (Ghaempanah and others, 2014)
Konstantopoulos (2018) in his book, Inscribed
Kossite cylinder seals in the Metropolitan
Museum, he says that, on two, cylinder seals of
Late Old Babylonian and Early Kassite era the
images of Marduk-Sarpanitrum (image 74) and
Ninsubur-Papsuskal (ımage75) are present.
Image: 74 (Konstantopoulos, 2018)
Image: 75 (Konstantopoulos, 2018)
Ornan (2004) in his paper, The Goddess Gula and
Her Dog, on one of the old Babylonian seals the
image of Goddess Gula, and on the other one the
Sumerian God Lama is carved. On both of these
seals the figures of god and goddess figures are
also presented (image 76a-76b). We also see
similar god and goddess engravings in Bakel's
article "Identifying Nergal, Nanna, Enbilulu,
Ninazu and Enlil on cylinder seals" (Bakel, n.d.).
Image: 76a (Ornan, 2004)
Image: 76b (Ornan, 2004)
According to the Metropolitan Museum sources,
the image 77 is said to be an Akkadian seal
(2021). The Snake God carved on this seal is also
seen on the Cyprus cylinder seals. According to
the British Museum sources, on image 78, the
God Tiamat is identified as a dragon (Cylinder
Seal | British Museum, n.d.). While in Akkadian
culture it is named as Sea God. The same images
are presented on the Cyprus cylinder seals as
well.
Volume 12 - Issue 62
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Image: 77 (Wiggermann, 1997)
Image: 78 (Cylinder Seal | British Museum, n.d.)
Middle East geography that our today’s religions
came out was also covering the geography of
Mesopotamia. In the long-last old cultures of
Mesopotamia, there was a structure of
happenings or creations of religious rituals, belief
systems and god-goddess identification that un-
deniably, they can be models to our today’s life.
In old cultures of Mesopotamia, not only the
countries but even the cities were having their
own private gods and goddess. In the times of
those cultures, if a culture was giving a duty to its
private god or goddess and that was accepted by
other cultures, they were naming their god or
goddess with the same name and sometimes as
the translation of their languages. In different
cultures although the names of gods and goddess
were different, the images were interpreted
similarly by the designers or carving artists. To
my opinion the consciousness of the old cultures
in sharing their common values, without
discrimination and separation, is a big wish of
nowadays cultures.
In and with this regard, we can expect that, the
research like this one will be guidelines for the
improvement of our social and cultural life.
Conclusion
Two hundred and fourteen (214) cylinder seals
with production dates between approximately
3000 BC and 600 BC were examined in the
research. Cylinder seals were used in Cyprus and
are exhibited in Cyprus Archaeological
Museums, British Museum, Metropolitan
Museum, John Hopkins and Medelhavs
Museum. Among the seals analyzed in terms of
figures engraved on them, sixty-seven (67) seals
were found to have human or human-bodied
figures. These seals were examined by six (6)
creativity education experts in order to identify
the god and goddess figures engraved on them,
which is one of the purposes of the research.
Creativity education experts stated that thirty-
four (34) of the sixty-seven seals had god or
goddess figures on them. The seals, which were
determined by creativity education experts to
have a god or goddess figure on them, were
examined by three (3) visual arts professionals.
From visual arts professionals; the first is 70.58%
in twenty-four (24) of thirty-four (34) seals, the
second is 61.76% in twenty-one (21) of thirty-
four (34) seals, and the third is 79.41% in twenty-
seven (27) of thirty-four (34) seals, he stated that
there are figures that show definite resemblance
to the figures of Levant & Mesopotamian gods
and goddess. This high similarity shows that the
gods and goddess figures, which are a
determinant of religious culture, had a high level
of religious relationship between the Levant &
Mesopotamian cultures and the Cypriot culture at
that time. In line with these views, it was
determined which gods&goddess were engraved
on the seals in Cyprus.
These gods&goddess; Drinking goddess, Ishara,
Ramman-Martu, Aa, Sala, Tarkhu, Sandu,
Khaldis, Shamas, Zirbanit, Marduk, Adad,
Goddess of agriculture, Archaic seated Deities,
Ishtar, Gilgamesh, Eagle-headed god, Siru and
Baru–Gula was found to be. It has been
determined that these gods and goddess are
common gods that exist in the cultures of the
Levant and Mesopotamia region, Sumerians,
Assyrians, Akkadians, Hittites, Babylonians and
Kassites. It has been observed that the seal
scrapers of these cultures neighboring Cyprus
also engraved similar god and goddess figures on
cylinder seals.
The island of Cyprus has been an important
center for trade routes in the Eastern
Mediterranean. Cylinder seals; They were used
to identify individuals, to control production by
rulers (king and the like), in barter transactions,
and in trade between different groups of people.
Cylinder seals, which also function in terms of
cultural transfer between neighboring cultures,
contributed to the transfer of religious culture
between societies.
As a result, it can be said that the god and goddess
figures engraved on the cylinder seals used in
Cyprus show a high similarity with the Levant &
Mesopotamian god and goddess figures.
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In this context, it can be stated that the
communities formed by the people living in the
region between 3000 BC and 600 BC generally
communicated in every aspect of
culture.Depending on this cultural relationship,
the similarities determined in terms of god and
goddess figures, which are important in terms of
religious culture, show that they have a high level
of relationship and interaction in terms of
religion.
This research provides insight into the cultural
exchange and influence between Cyprus and the
Levant & Mesopotamian regions in ancient
times, highlighting the importance of
understanding and appreciating cultural
diversity.
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