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/ January 2023
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.34069/AI/2023.61.01.31
How to Cite:
Kaduk, S., Shulha, A., Svoboda, I., Varyvoda, I., & Mykytyn, Y. (2023). The use of automated information systems in the
investigation of criminal offences. Amazonia Investiga, 12(61), 307-316. https://doi.org/10.34069/AI/2023.61.01.31
The use of automated information systems in the investigation of
criminal offences
Застосування автоматизованих інформаційних систем при розслідуванні
кримінальних правопорушень
Received: January 15, 2023 Accepted: February 19, 2023
Written by:
Svitlana Kaduk132
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5300-9987
Andriy Shulha133
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5524-5433
Ivo Svoboda134
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0941-4686
Iryna Varyvoda135
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6728-3696
Yurii Mykytyn136
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9354-3586
Abstract
The aim of the study was to develop
recommendations for the most effective and safe
use of automated information systems in the
investigation of criminal offences. The study
involved the following methods: anamnestic
method; descriptive analysis; forecasting
method. The society uses an automated
information system, which is defined as an
ordered complex (system) of actions designed to
implement a specific information technology for
the performance of specified functions, which
involves personnel and a complex of automation
tools. They help to create databases, which are
used in the investigation of criminal offences.
The following measures are proposed for
increasing the efficiency and expanding the
scope of automated information systems in the
investigation of crimes: ensure the protection of
databases from external intrusions (cyber-
attacks); ensure the internal security of the data
contained in the respective databases in order to
prevent privacy violations; ensure the
132
PhD of Law Sciences, Associate Professor, Department of Politics in the Sphere of Combating Maliciousness and Criminal Law,
Primary Scientific Law Institute, Precarpathian National University named after Vasyl Stefanyk, Ivano-Frankivsk, Ukraine.
133
PhD of Juridical Sciences, Associate Professor, Department of State and Legal Disciplines and Public Administration, Faculty
No. 4, Donetsk State University of Internal Affairs, Kropyvnytskyi, Ukraine.
134
Associate Professor, Guarantor of Security Management Studies, Department of Security and Law, University of Regional
Development and Banking Institute, AMBIS, Prague, Czech Republic.
135
Postgraduate Student, Department of Policy in the Field of Crime Control and Criminal Law, Educational and Scientific Law
Institute, Vasyl Stefanyk Precarpation National University, Ivano-Frankivsk, Ukraine.
136
PhD of Law Sciences, Associate Professor, Director, Professor, Department of Politics in the Field of Fighting Crime and Criminal
Law, Vasyl Stefanyk Precarpathian National University, Ivano-Frankivsk, Ukraine.
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organization of specialized training for law
enforcement officers; automate a number of
tactical operations using information systems;
develop and adapt all possible information
resources and technologies for the set procedural
tasks; create unified databases of forensic data at
the international and national levels. This study
opens up prospects for further research for the
most effective protection of databases from
illegal use, which will contribute to the
development of this direction in international and
national criminal justice.
Keywords: information systems, artificial
intelligence, investigation, proceedings.
Introduction
The need to use the latest means of response to
certain actions of people around the world
determined the introduction of the latest
information technologies in criminal justice
(Ritchie et al., 2021). Accordingly, the
investigation of criminal offences requires a
widespread use of automated information
systems, which is determined by the need for
timely, complete and reliable information
(Thompson, 2010) and the potential of artificial
intelligence in this area is difficult to
overestimate (Rigano, 2019). The use of these
technologies is accompanied by a number of
problems that must be solved in the near future.
In particular, the matter is about the ethics of
using certain human databases (biometric data to
create facial recognition technology) (Smith &
Miller, 2022); legality of using information from
mobile phones of persons involved in a specific
criminal offence as evidence (Alatawi et al.,
2020). There can also be complications when
police reports from different structural parts are
combined to create and maintain a single
database (Carnaz et al., 2020). On the other hand,
the issue of protecting such electronic databases
from theft and distribution of confidential
information arises (Uzlov & Strukov, 2017).
The aim of this study, in view of the relevance of
the issue under research, as well as the
unresolved issues related to the use of automated
information systems in the investigation of
crimes, will be to develop recommendations to
ensure their most effective and safe use by law
enforcement agencies in the investigation of
criminal offences. The aim involved the
following research objectives:
− identify and describe the largest and most
important forensic databases;
− analyse the powers of international
organizations in the field of information
exchange between law enforcement
agencies;
− establish basic methods of studying forensic
data
This article will consist of the following sections:
− Introduction – the relevance of the research
and its purpose and tasks are highlighted;
− Review of the literature - the latest studies of
the selected issues are analyzed in the
sources, and little-researched problems and
unresolved issues in this area are identified;
− Methodology and methods – the research
methods are defined, and the empirical
material used in the article is indicated;
− Results – data and theoretical propositions
are displayed, and facts are given in the
author's interpretation, including tables and
figures;
− Discussion – the opinions of individual
researchers are presented regarding the
prospects and shortcomings of the use of
automated information systems in the
investigation of crimes and the author's
attitude towards them;
Kaduk, S., Shulha, A., Svoboda, I., Varyvoda, I., Mykytyn, Y. / Volume 12 - Issue 61: 307-316 / January, 2023
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− Conclusions – the author's vision of the
practical and legislative achievement of the
set goal and the implementation of the set
tasks is presented;
− Sources - a list of literary sources used in this
study is provided.
Literature review
Individual issues of implementation and use of
automated information systems in the activities
of relevant bodies are the subject of quite a large
number of theoretical and practical studies in
view of the importance of this direction of
modernization of the process of investigation of
criminal offences. Bulgakova et al., (2019)
studied the use of large databases in the
investigation of criminal offences in general.
Pramanik et al., (2017) conducted research on the
use of technological data analysis in the activities
of investigative bodies. Rigano (2019) studied
the possibilities of using certain technical devices
and developments in order to collect relevant
information to improve the investigation of
criminal acts, such as artificial intelligence to
meet the needs of criminal justice, are being
studied.
A number of studies deal with the issue of the use
of separate databases for the investigation of
criminal offences. In particular, they focus on the
possibility of using information systems which
contain data on fingerprints and palms to identify
persons who have committed a criminal offence
(Haraksim et al., 2019); appropriateness and
possibility of using biometric databases in
criminal proceedings (Smith et al., 2018), as well
as different types of information contained on
electronic media. The issues of appropriateness
of using data contained in social networks
(Arshad et al., 2020) and mobile content or other
information from mobile phones in the
investigation (Alatawi et al., 2020), as well as the
inclusion of this type of data in certain
information systems were covered. Solovyeva
and Frantsiforov (2020) separately studied the
peculiarities and specifics of the investigation of
some types of crimes using electronic and digital
databases as automated information systems.
The question of protecting relevant databases
containing forensic analytical information to
ensure the investigation of criminal offences
logically arises against the background of an
extended use of automated information systems
in the investigation of crimes and in criminal
procedural activities in general (Uzlov &
Strukov, 2017). The reason is that the theft of
such information will have a negative impact on
the work of law enforcement and judicial bodies
both at the national and at the international level.
It is necessary to consider those studies that
express an ambiguous attitude to the use of
automated information systems in criminal
justice in general and in procedural activities in
particular. Willis et al., (2020) note that the
impact of the use of information technologies on
the work of police officers is ambiguous and
causes different attitudes among the police
officers themselves. Thornton (2016) criticizes
attempts to create unified databases for the work
of police officers.
It should be noted that currently insufficient
attention is paid to such problematic aspects of
the use of automated information systems in the
investigation of crimes as the protection of
personal data (confidentiality) contained in these
databases. The issue of general protection of the
databases created by automated information
systems against the theft of confidential
information is not fully resolved. In the current
context, these issues require an urgent theoretical
and practical solution, and their legislative
enshrinement.
Methods
This study was carried out in stages based on the
logic of the presentation of the material to
achieve the aim of achieving the aim set in the
article and fulfilling the relevant objectives.
These stages were the following:
− formulating the topic and defining the scope
of the research;
− search and selection of literature and
sources;
− selection and study of statistics;
− analysis of the material presented in the
selected sources, and evaluation of the
results of these studies;
− identification of unresolved problems
related to the use of automated information
systems in the investigation of criminal
offences;
− determining the aim of the article;
− drawing conclusions and providing practical
recommendations for solving the problems
selected for research;
− outlining the prospects for further research
in the specified area.
This study was based on the data on the types of
information systems and databases, areas of
activity for obtaining information, as well as the
information exchange between law enforcement
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agencies of different states aimed at fighting
crime. A number of national and international
databases used by law enforcement agencies in
criminal proceedings (The National Crime
Information Center Database, FBI Uniform
Crime Database, Interpol International Criminal
Databases, Stanford Open Policing Project,
Combined DNA Index System Crime Database),
twenty databases used in forensic investigations
that are created and owned by the United States;
nineteen Interpol databases used by police
around the world were analysed.
The legal framework of the study consisted of the
provisions of international legal acts, in
particular, the Convention on the establishment
of a European Police Office (Europol
Convention) of 1995, Council Decision of 6
April 2009 establishing the European Police
Office (Europol), Council of Europe Committee
of Ministers Recommendation No. R(87) 15 to
the Member States on regulating the use of
personal data in the police sector of 17
September 1987, Council Decision
2005/681/JHA of 20 September 2005
establishing the European Police
College (CEPOL) and repealing Decision
2000/820/JHA.
The study involved the following methods to
achieve the aim of the research:
− the information analytical method was used
to analyse information sources and draw
conclusions on the importance of using
automated information systems in the
investigation of criminal offences, as well as
outlining prospects for further research in
this area;
− the system approach was used to analyse the
conclusions on the need to use the latest
information technologies in the
investigation of criminal offences;
− the anamnestic method was used to collect
data on international and national
cooperation in the investigation of criminal
offences;
− the descriptive analysis was used to study
the literature and information sources on the
use of automated information systems in the
investigation of crimes;
− the forecasting method was used to develop
proposals and recommendations for
improving the mechanism of using
automated information systems in the
investigation of criminal offences and
ensuring their protection.
Results
An automated information system is a
component of the overall concept of an
automated system used in society. It is defined as
an ordered complex (system) of actions aimed at
the implementation of a specific information
technology for the performance of specified
functions, which involves personnel and a
complex of automation tools (Black, 2023).
Automation tools include software, computer
hardware, a processing system, storage of
information and texts, networks and other
relevant special equipment.
The relevant databases are created by automated
information systems, which are used in the
investigation of criminal offences. Almost every
country has such databases at the current stage of
scientific and technical development. For
example, they distinguish between such basic
databases for forensics as anthropological,
ballistic, biometric, domestic violence data,
firearms, digital crimes, banditry, human
trafficking, etc. in the US (Uncovered, 2022).
In general, there are five world largest and the
most important in terms of the collected materials
of individual countries and international
databases, which are used in forensics for the
investigation of criminal offences (see Table 1
for more details).
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Table 1.
Top 5 forensic data sources
1
NCIC (The National Crime
Information Center) Database
It has been used since 1967; a comprehensive database that contains
enforcement agencies, and is forensic information from all US law
accessible to every criminal justice agency and court in the country.
2
FBI Uniform Crime (UCR)
Database
A massive FBI managed database which contains data on past crimes,
law enforcement divided into four large databases; it is accessible to
officers as well as the public for full information free of charge.
3
Stanford Open Policing Project
Contains data on daily detentions (stops of transport and individual
n citizens); it was created for the purpose of establishing cooperatio
between citizens and law enforcement agencies; it is publicly available
and used for statistical research
4
Interpol International Criminal
Databases
Database of the International Criminal Police Organization; it contributes
investigation of international crimes; combines 19 separate to the
databases; has a secure system for law enforcement officers to
communicate through a database; open to law enforcement agencies
worldwide
5
CODIS DNA (Combined DNA
Index System) Crime Database
e database exists since 1990 and is provided by the FBI; it contains Th
information about biological evidence; contributes to the identification of
missing persons and detection of complex cases; available in the USA
ies; it is based on a special and 90 laboratories in more than 50 countr
software
Source: Kovacevic (2020).
In recent years, cooperation between police
officers at the international level has been
developing rapidly. The relations between police
officers are not bilateral, but multi-channel,
where interaction is established simultaneously
with many countries.
The EU is one of the bright examples of such
cooperation between police officers of different
countries. The EU created a special police
service — Europol (like the international
organization Interpol) — on the basis of the
Convention on the establishment of a European
Police Office (Europol Convention), which was
adopted in 1995 and ratified by EU member
states in 1998 (Council Act of 26 July 1995
No 95/C 316/01). This organization coordinates
the activities of law enforcement agencies of the
EU member states, as well as non-member states,
cooperates with other international organizations
in providing forensic data. The main function of
Europol is the organization of interstate
cooperation in combating crime and the
implementation of relevant criminal policy. The
scope of this organization includes ensuring
detection and investigation of criminal offences
committed on the territory of member states
based on the main standards of combating crime.
The direct function of Europol is to provide
information (see Figure 1for more details).
Figure 1. Powers of Europol in information provision
Source: Sirant (2016)
Ways of information provision of the investigation of criminal
offences by Europol
improvement of expert
knowledge during
investigations
provision of operational
information for effective
and rational use of forces
and means at the national
and EU level
training and retraining of
law enforcement officers
material and technical
support of police agencies
development of
recommendations for
reducing crime rates
development and transfer of
specific policing methods
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As the international cooperation in the field of
crime investigation is developing and
strengthening, there are international databases
that form the basis of an international automated
information system. According to Interpol’s
definition, these include databases of personal
data on offenders, forensic databases, data on
travel (movements) and official documents, on
stolen property, etc. (see Table 2 for more details
on international databases). At the same time, it
is indicated that these 19 databases contain 124
million police reports and are used daily by 20
million people who are looking for data (the
response time to a request is less than a second).
Table 2.
Interpol’s 19 databases used by police around the world
Database
What is includes
Coded International Dangerous Persons Alert System)-Note: Interpol Criminal Information System (Colour
Individuals
Nominal data: personal data and criminal histories of people for whom
international police cooperation is requested
Violence against children and the victim: an international database that
victim, the provides data for establishing the connection between the
and the crime scene; contains images of child sexual perpetrator
exploitation; aims to locate and detain criminals
Criminalistics
Fingerprints: an automated fingerprint identification system
DNA: database of DNA profiles of criminals, missing persons,
unidentified bodies
Familia: a database that identifies missing persons by matching them -I
with family DNA
recognition: a database providing a specialized platform for Facial checking images to identify missing persons, escapers-storing and cross
Travel and official documents: border
checkpoints databases
Travel and Identity Documents Database (INTERPOL’s SLTD):
ains information on travel and identity documents known to be cont
illegal
Stolen Administrative Documents (SAD): contains records of stolen
official documents that serve to identify objects
with Counterfeit documents: provides police and border guards
information on the main identification markers of falsified or forged
documents
Comparison of authentic and forged documents: includes examples of
genuine travel documents to identify fake ones
Stolen property
ation data for all types of vehicles Vehicles: contains advanced identific
and parts that can be identified from a stolen report
Vessels: Stolen Vessels is a centralized database for tracking stolen
vessels and engines
Works of Art Database: contains descriptions and images of cultural
objects reported as stolen by Member States and international partners
Circulation of firearms
Firearms Identification: an interactive online tool that provides
the most accurate identification and standardized methods for border investigations-description of firearms for tracking them in cross
Firearms Tracing: a single global law enforcement platform to support
transnational tracking of illegal, lost or stolen firearms, terrorism and
related crimes.-other firearm
scale international -Ballistic Data Comparison: the world’s only large
ballistic data exchange network.
a database that helps to improve the efficiency of gathering and sharing —Organized Crime Networks
intelligence, investigations and analysis of criminal networks that facilitate the identification and arrest of their
leaders and financiers.
Maritime Piracy: stores intelligence on incidents of piracy and armed robbery at sea, including details of
duals, their location, etc.indivi
Source: Our 19 databases. Interpol (2022).
The use of databases created by automated
information systems can have various directions.
But the main ones, which relate to the collection
and analysis of data necessary for the
investigation of criminal offences, are
distinguished. These include the most effective
intellectual methods for synthesis and analysis,
such as link analysis, intelligent agent, text
mining, neural network, machine learning (see
Figure 2 for more details).
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The creation and development of databases with
the help of automated information systems to
make procedural activities in the investigation of
criminal offences and their further use in this area
more efficient is accompanied by certain
complications and threats. They require an urgent
solution.
Figure 2. Five methods of intelligent data analysis
Source: Pramanik et al., (2017)
The risk of theft or damage of such data as a
result of specially targeted cyber-attacks is one of
the most dangerous. Different methods are
offered for the protection of such systems, where
the following ones are distinguished as the most
effective:
− a method of monitoring the parameters of
variable software components of the trusted
information environment, which ensure the
stability and integrity of the system (Kalinin,
2010);
− a method of multi-stage identification of
users, which can be based on entering a login
and password that changes from time to
time; entering a set of user-specific data;
recognition of biometric data; using radio
code devices; chip authentication
(Kirilchuka et al., 2022);
− accreditation and certification method,
where the Ministry of Defence in provides
access to databases of a particular country
subject to the submission of relevant
documents (Dawson et al., 2013).
Guaranteeing human rights and freedoms
enshrined in international and national regulatory
legal acts is another problematic aspect of using
such databases in the investigation of criminal
offences. This applies to ensuring the minimum
standards of information protection enshrined in
the Council of Europe Convention for the
Protection of Individuals with regard to
Automatic Processing of Personal Data of 1981,
and the Convention on Cybercrime of 1987. The
relevant international and national bodies apply
the principle of personal data protection as part
of a partial solution to this problem. It prescribes
that data contained in separate databases and
information systems can be transferred and used
only by the competent authorities of the member
states to the Convention and only for the purpose
of preventing and combating crime in general
and investigating individual crimes in particular.
Their other use must be coordinated with the
states that own the database, but on the condition
that the information is used only for the stated
purposes, which do not contain a potential threat
of violation of individual rights and freedoms.
At the national level, the vast majority of states
have separate legal acts, including norms aimed
to protect personal data from their illegal use or
distribution. On the other hand, prosecution is
associated with certain complications. It should
be, however, noted that certain effective steps in
this direction have already been taken. In
particular, individual countries established a
system of fines for the mentioned offences. The
EU adopted the General Data Protection
Regulation (GDPR) in 2018, which not only
clearly regulates the collection, processing and
use of personal data, but also provides quite
significant fines for legal entities for violating the
regulations. About EUR 360 million of fines
were collected under this Regulation for 2 years
(Fisun, 2020). Therefore, the establishment of
Methods of intelligent data analysis
Link
Analysis –
understanding
of
connections,
relationships,
and critical
links
Intelligent
Agent — a
computing
object that
autonomously
performs tasks
delegated by the
user; is a
learning
mechanism
Text
mining is
work related
to
unstructured
text
information
Neural
network -
imitates the
cognitive
neurological
functions of
human brain;
privacy and
human rights
are ensured,
short term
Learning
mechanism -
discovery of
regularities
from learning
experience;
studying
skewed data
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appropriate penalties in the future will have an
appropriate effect for personal data protection.
The process of creating and using special
databases for the investigation of criminal
offences depends on scientific and technological
development. The future of law enforcement is
likely to continue to evolve rapidly, as artificial
intelligence and automated information tracking
become more common. But this process is also
complicated by a certain incompetence of law
enforcement officers in using databases created
by automated information systems. Therefore,
the promising directions in the process of
improving the use of information databases in the
investigation of crimes are the following:
− the organization of specialized training of
law enforcement officers in order to develop
the skills of detection, preliminary study,
research, recording of intellectual, material
and virtual traces of criminal offences;
− independent work with databases, electronic
media and means of recording information;
− conducting investigative actions with the
introduction of information technologies
and the capabilities of artificial intelligence.
One of the promising areas should be the
automation of a number of tactical operations by
using information systems, which include the
search and identification of persons involved in a
crime, identification of suspects, exposure of the
criminal, identification of accomplices, study and
analysis of the obtained evidence, establishment
and identification of traces of a criminal offence
etc.
There are the following promising directions of
fulfilling the specified objectives and improving
the use of automated information systems:
− development and adaptation of all possible
information resources and technologies for
the set procedural tasks, as well as the
development of a mechanism (algorithm)
for their use in criminal proceedings, in
particular for the investigation of criminal
offences;
− creation of unified databases, which will
contain forensic information in the most
complete volume, at the international and
national levels, which will allow speeding
up individual stages of criminal proceedings
and increasing their efficiency.
Discussion
There is no doubt about the need to develop new
and improve existing mechanisms for the use of
automated information systems and created
databases in law enforcement activities in
general and in the investigation of crimes in
particular. This is determined by the potential of
artificial intelligence, which will be used in the
fight against crime and, in particular, in detecting
crimes, much more widely (Rigano, 2019). There
is a need to protect information systems (geo-
information systems) used in crime
investigations, as well as forensic analysis and
analytics (Uzlov & Strukov, 2017).
At the same time, it is difficult to fully agree with
the reasoning regarding the unethical use of
biometric data and technologies for recognizing
faces or other parts of the human body, because
this artificial intelligence technology has great
potential for investigating crimes provided
proper data protection (Smith & Miller, 2022).
The same applies to the analysis of mobile
content, which can be used as evidence. Given
the needs of law enforcement agencies, is quite
permissible also under the condition of
maintaining confidentiality (Alatawi et al.,
2020).
On the other hand, it is indicated that the use of
information systems in the investigation of
crimes does not always bring positive results, as
they can break the interaction between the
employees of investigative bodies and the police
(Willis et al., 2020). Although, such interaction
will be re-established as soon as a single database
is created. One cannot agree with those who
believe that the procedural technology is not
promising and will not bring the expected results
(Thornton, 2016).
At the same time, we fully agree with the
proposal regarding the need for constant
comparison of techniques and methods, choosing
the necessary methodology depending on the
type and severity of crimes in order to improve
the use of databases in the investigation of
criminal offences (Pramanik et al., 2017). The
proposition regarding the appropriateness of
improving the automation of the investigation
process itself and other forensic processes is
essential (Jadhav et al., 2020).
Conclusions
The above study demonstrated the potential and
high efficiency of using automated information
systems in the investigation of criminal offences.
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The development of digital technologies and the
implementation of artificial intelligence in law
enforcement activities in relation to the
investigation of criminal offences, an increasing
number of spheres of social life and activity
require the development of mechanisms that will
facilitate the rapid and high-quality use of its
achievements in certain spheres. It is proposed to
improve the following areas of this activity in
order to improve efficiency and expand the scope
of the use of automated information systems in
the investigation of crimes:
− protection of databases from external
intrusions (cyber-attacks) by monitoring the
parameters of variable software components
of the trusted information environment,
multi-stage identification of users and the
method of accreditation and certification;
− ensuring the internal security of the data
contained in the relevant databases in order
to prevent violations of their confidentiality
by imposing appropriate fines, as well as
other types of liability;
− organization of specialized training law
enforcement officers to develop their skills
of studying intellectual, material and virtual
traces of criminal offences, independent
work with databases, conducting
investigative actions with the introduction of
information technologies;
− automation of a number of tactical
operations using information systems;
− development and adaptation of all possible
information resources and technologies for
the set procedural tasks;
− creation of unified databases of forensic data
at the international and national levels.
It is proposed to develop a special document
(Recommendations) at the international level on
the basis of the specified recommendations,
which will contain these provisions and
propositions for their most effective
implementation in procedural activities by
individual states.
This study opens up prospects for further
research for the most effective solution to
problematic aspects in this area. This includes, in
particular, ensuring the protection of databases
and confidential information from illegal use,
which will contribute to the development of this
area in international and national criminal justice.
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