Volume 12 - Issue 61
/ January 2023
103
http:// www.amazoniainvestiga.info ISSN 2322- 6307
DOI: https://doi.org/10.34069/AI/2023.61.01.11
How to Cite:
Plekhanova, T., Tarasiuk, V., Iuksel, G., Putsiata, I., & Kulykova, O. (2023). Internet journalism in modern society: an overview of
mechanisms for resisting media manipulation. Amazonia Investiga, 12(61), 103-111. https://doi.org/10.34069/AI/2023.61.01.11
Internet journalism in modern society: an overview of mechanisms for
resisting media manipulation
Periodismo en Internet en la sociedad moderna: una visión general de los mecanismos de
resistencia a la manipulación mediática
Received: January 20, 2023 Accepted: February 25, 2023
Written by:
Tatyana Plekhanova43
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2639-0396
Volodymyr Tarasiuk44
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3216-0415
Gaiana Iuksel45
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0894-7544
Web of Science Researcher ID: AAB-2490-2021
Scopus Author ID: 57216205308
Iryna Putsiata46
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9047-6245
Olena Kulykova47
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0461-3803
Abstract
At the current stage of the development of the
information society, the influence of Internet
journalism on the formation of public opinion (in
particular, if we are talking about outright
manipulation) is extremely noticeable. The
purpose of the article is to analyze these
influences in modern society in terms of the
presence and use of media manipulation
mechanisms and ways to counter them. The main
research methods were general scientific
(analysis, synthesis) and special scientific
(abstraction and concretization). Manifestations
of the manipulative influence of Internet
journalism on human consciousness are traced in
the results. The main attention is paid to the
analysis of the mechanisms of resistance to
manipulation in the media. In particular, an
analysis of fact-checking, legal methods of
combating fakes was carried out, the peculiarities
of protection against manipulation based on the
43
Candidate of Philology, Associate professor head of the Department of Publishing and Editing, Faculty of Journalism, Zaporizhzhya
National University, Zaporizhzhia, Ukraine.
44
Ph.D. of philological sciences, associate professor of the Department of Journalism, Faculty of Philology, Uzhhorod National
University, Ukraine.
45
PhD in Philology, Associate Professor, Doctoral Candidate of the Institute of Journalism Taras Shevchenko National University of
Kyiv, Ukraine. Associate Professor Department of Slavic Philology and Journalism, Educational & Scientific Institute of Philology
and Journalism of the V.I. Vernadsky Taurida National University, Kyiv, Ukraine.
46
Senior Lecturer Department of Journalismand Mass Communication Psychology and Innovative Education, Institute of
Jurisprudence, Lviv Polytechnic National University, Lviv, Ukraine.
47
Candidate of Science in Social Communication, Senior Lecturer Department of Journalism, Faculty Culturology, Kharkiv State
Academy of Culture, Kharkiv, Ukraine.
104
www.amazoniainvestiga.info ISSN 2322- 6307
verification of photo and video materials were
investigated. The results also highlight the video
verification algorithm. The conclusions
summarize that critical thinking and acquisition
of media competence and media literacy skills
are a relevant way to resist manipulative
influences on the Internet. Despite this, fact-
checking and verification of photos and video
materials that are distributed on the Internet are
effective mechanisms for resisting manipulation.
Keywords: media resources, Internet
journalism, manipulation, propaganda.
Introduction
The leading role in the formation and
dissemination of public opinion is played by the
media, it is interpreted as a set of modern
channels of communication (press, television,
radio, Internet), through which information is
distributed. However, the mechanisms used in
the media often have a manipulative and
controlling potential, influencing the perception
of reality, social attitudes, and behavior patterns
of individuals. At the same time, under the
conditions of information society and
globalization, Internet journalism occupies a
notable function; it is a tool through which direct
influence on human consciousness is exercised.
Manipulative mechanisms used in the media can
noticeably influence public opinion, so an
important task of modern journalism is to
identify the key characteristics of manipulative
messages and to study the main mechanisms of
counteracting manipulation.
Note that the authors of the article interpret the
term “manipulation” as a special type of mental
influence exercised through the press
(newspapers, magazines), the Internet,
television, audio, video recordings, advertising,
social networks, etc., which leads to awakening
in the object of influence intentions that
transform its moods, thoughts, values, attitudes,
views, etc.
The purpose of the article is to analyze the
influence of Internet journalism in modern
society on the presence and use of media
manipulation mechanisms and to determine the
main effective ways of countering them. For this,
the research first describes the possibilities of the
manipulative influence of Internet media on
people’s consciousness, highlights the key
mechanisms of countering manipulation. The
following sections examine the practical use of
anti-manipulation mechanisms through the prism
of fact-checking, checking photo and video
content.
Theoretical Framework or Literature Review
The methodological basis of the article is the
work of European, American, and Asian
scientists. In particular, Abbas Naqvi et al.,
(2020) characterized the influence of social
networks on the development of public
institutions and businesses. The authors focused
on the manipulative potential of advertising.
Brooks & Porter (2020) developed a model of
media influence on political ideology in the
context of globalization and information
transformation. Karlsen & Aalberg (2021)
conducted an experiment designed to determine
the impact of news distribution on social media
(Facebook) on the emergence of news credibility.
The results of their study demonstrated that
spreading news through Facebook affects trust.
The researchers note that the effect is strong,
while politicians are mediating senders. At the
same time, Kaur & Verma (2018) characterized
the manipulative influence of social media.
Rogers & Niederer (2021) also identified the
manipulative significance of social media and
characterized its role in influencing human
consciousness, making all kinds of decisions,
including political decisions. Tuters (2020)
investigated the problem of the spread of fake
news to the Dutch political debate space on
YouTube.
At the same time, Vysotska & Vysotska (2020)
characterized some mechanisms to counter fake
news manipulation. In particular, the authors
Plekhanova, T., Tarasiuk, V., Iuksel, G., Putsiata, I., Kulykova, O. / Volume 12 - Issue 61: 103-111 / January, 2023
Volume 12 - Issue 61
/ January 2023
105
http:// www.amazoniainvestiga.info ISSN 2322- 6307
note the importance of teaching students to show
bias and manipulation based on events in
Ukraine. Mykolaienko (2019) investigated the
problem of manipulativeness and false news in
the Ukrainian media space.
As can be seen from the analysis of the literature,
modern researchers have paid much attention to
the analysis of the manipulative influence of
social media resources, while other Internet
resources (including official news sites) were not
subject to detailed research. At the same time, the
review of mechanisms of resistance to
manipulation remains a topical problem for
research.
Methodology
The realization of the research goal involved the
use of general scientific research methods. In
particular, based on the analysis, the research
subject (mechanisms of resistance to
manipulative influence) is divided into smaller
parts: the study of the main manipulations used
in Internet journalism, the characteristics of
resistance to manipulations through the prism of
fact-checking analysis, the analysis of resistance
to manipulations using the analysis of photo and
video materials. With the help of synthesis, the
specified elements were synthesized and own
conclusions and recommendations were formed.
The study was implemented in several stages.
The first stage involved a theoretical review of
the main features of manipulative messages used
in the media. In the second stage, the main
mechanisms for countering manipulation (fact-
checking, legal verification methods, etc.) were
reviewed. In the third stage, a thorough analysis
of countering manipulation through photo and
video content verification was conducted. On the
basis of modeling, a model of photo and video
content verification was developed through the
prism of the use of modern online resources. At
the last stage the results were summarized, and
own judgments and conclusions were formed.
The results of the study are based on an analysis
of news sites such as BBC News, “Metro” the
factcheck media “Slovo i Dilo”, etc. The study
was prepared based on the analysis of such sites
as Pipl. Com, deepWeb, Yomapic, JPEGSnoop,
Findexif, Jeffreys Exif Viewer, etc. In addition,
particular attention is paid to the analysis of
Google’s fact-checking sites: Google Imagine,
Google Earth.
Results and Discussion
Protection from manipulation: signs of a
manipulative Internet message
Various characteristics of manipulation have
been described in the scientific literature, among
them two leading characteristics: asymmetric and
covert (Brooks & Porter, 2020). The
informational action of the source of
manipulation is targeted at the mass psyche of
society. Most technologies of manipulative
influence are based on the creation of artificial
reality, the implementation of an external
stimulus that focuses the attention of the object
and is meaningful to him (Karlsen & Aalberg,
2021). Consequently, modern researchers
distinguish several levels of the manipulation
process (see Figure 1).
In general, the information provided to us by the
media passes through the censorship of the
psyche (Kaur & Verma, 2018). The latter stands
in the way of the message that appears in the
center of human perception of it (through
representational and signaling systems). The
human consciousness is capable of redistributing
information and perceiving it in its own way. One
part of the information message, as a result of
mental censorship, reaches consciousness, while
others (much larger in volume) go to
subconsciousness. At the same time, the
information message received in the
subconscious begins to influence the
consciousness after a certain period of time
(Shafi & Vultee, 2018).
Figure 1. The main levels of manipulation used in Internet media
Authors’ development
106
www.amazoniainvestiga.info ISSN 2322- 6307
A sign of manipulation is the language that
politicians, presenters, and article writers use. If
they use obscure or generalized concepts, it is
more likely that they are trying to hide something
(Cheung et al., 2020). If the material is addressed
to a general audience but is oversaturated with
opt-outs, trusts, etc. - the audience is being
manipulated. On the other hand, another criterion
is excessive emotion. When the author of an
Internet message in a text is very emotional, one
should look for a catch. In the material, emotion
is used to form a specific, necessary condition in
the reader of the manipulator. The use of
emotionally colored words: outrageous,
unacceptable, perfectly indicative of
manipulation, because the goal is to create a
certain impression. Another sign is
sensationalism – when authors try to emphasize
the information’s weightiness and importance
and induce a corresponding state in readers
(Abbas Naqvi et al., 2020).
In many cases where categoricalness appears,
there are signs of manipulativeness. For example:
“Every one of us is president,” “I will hear
everyone.” One should also be wary of the mode
of grouping. When the source of information
begins to emphasize that we belong to one group,
and they do not understand them - to another. At
the same time, in a manipulative Internet
message, the opinions stated are unsubstantiated
credible arguments, there is no specific data and
no references to Internet sources (if there are any,
they are difficult to verify). A separate tendency
of manipulative messages often spread in various
Telegram channels, is the lack of authorship.
(See Figure 2).
Figure 2. Signs of manipulativeness in an Internet message
Authors’ development
Taking into account the indicated signs, it is
possible to distinguish a manipulative message
from a true one. At the same time, it should be
taken into account that a manipulative message
gives away its header. A headline like:
«Sensation...», «You won't believe...»,
«Shocking truth» is manipulative. In the name of
this type, excessively emotional vocabulary is
mostly used. The main goal of such Internet
headlines is for the reader to click on them and
open the message. At the same time, there will
often be no sensationalism in the text. There is
another purpose for using such headers. Due to
the fact that there is a lot of news on social
networks, people do not open all of them, but
only skim the titles. In such a situation, the
manipulation will be aimed at the reader forming
the desired opinion of the manipulator based only
on the title.
Basic mechanisms for resisting manipulation
on the Internet
A powerful defense against manipulative
influence is the acquisition of media literacy and
media competence skills. These skills are
especially important in view of the Russia-
Ukraine war and Russia's use of various means
of propaganda. For this reason, one must learn to
analyze information, find contradictions in it, and
interpret it. Since the manipulator always affects
the emotional state, you should try to blunt your
emotions. First of all, you should perceive the
author's words rationally and impartially. If the
Internet message contains signs of
sensationalism and categorical, you should check
the information with other sources. In particular,
if the message is categorical, one should
immediately think “What will happen if he hears
everyone?” Internal conversations and
arguments should be had. As soon as an
alternative opinion emerges that differs from the
Volume 12 - Issue 61
/ January 2023
107
http:// www.amazoniainvestiga.info ISSN 2322- 6307
considerations of the manipulator, its zombifying
effect is suspended.
At the same time, it is important to remember that
no source of information in a confrontational
environment provides a realistic assessment of
the state of affairs. Internet manipulation loosens
up users on a kind of emotional swing of
“victories” and “failures,” which leads to gradual
internal exhaustion. For this reason, anxiety or
aggressiveness must have a kind of application.
Physical activity (physical work) allows one to
take away aggression and fears, to soberly assess
the news, and to exert manipulative influence in
the future.
A separate method for countering the spread of
manipulation by journalists in the digital
environment is fact-checking, i.e. a detailed
verification of the information received,
including an analysis of the completeness,
authenticity and manipulative content.
Factchecking can be considered an extension of
media competence, with the difference that it can
be performed not only by individuals, but also by
groups of Internet users united for the purpose of
countering the spread of lies (Hirst, 2018). In the
context of political destabilization and open
armed aggression, the existence of enthusiastic
groups and the efforts of individual users who
create relevant pages where they oppose the
spread of disinformation, false political
discussions, etc.
Factchecker implements verification of
information only in open official sources. A key
difference between factchecker and media
investigation is the absolute rejection of insider
information and unofficial information.
Factchecker uses only official sources of
information, both Ukrainian and foreign answers
to inquiries to governmental bodies and foreign
institutions to create research (See Figure 3).
So, as shown in Figure 3, the fact checker first
selects material and identifies the main points to
be verified. The next step is to search official
sources to verify the information. This will help
determine whether the Internet message is true,
false or contains misleading statements. After
that, the analyzed message is accompanied by
comments that justify the result, then another
expert verifies the comment. If the comment
passes the check, a final check for internal logic
is implemented. Then there is a publication of the
verified data, which contains links to the sources
of verification.
At the same time, the possibilities of legal
opposition to manipulation are discussed. In
particular, researchers identify several major
manifestations of manipulation on the Internet
(Spencer, 2019). First, manipulation is not
conducive to an individual's autonomous
existence, as it causes tangible harm to the
freedom to make personal decisions. Second,
manipulation entails ineffective outcomes or
negative consequences because it forces
individuals to take actions and make choices that
may be harmful and not in line with their actual
preferences (Warwick et al., 2021). In the
political arena, manipulative behavior leads to
decreased trust in democratic institutions. Also,
the use of manipulation harms the concept of
human dignity because people become certain
subjects of externally imposed experiments, they
are only used to achieve a certain goal.
Figure 3. Basic check algorithm for fact-checkers
108
www.amazoniainvestiga.info ISSN 2322- 6307
The use of manipulation in online journalism,
through opinionmakers, can deal all of the above
“blows” simultaneously, but have a certain
particularly harmful direction. For this reason,
there is a legal problem between defining the
boundaries of free speech, the right to err
(because some manipulative information is
distributed erroneously), and conscious
propaganda. One compromise solution is to
block platforms that deliberately spread
misinformation. It is not the personal opinion of
the author that is taken into account, but the
methods of spreading disinformation - that is,
first and foremost, the platform that provided the
opportunities for broadcasting materials with
manipulative content is sanctioned. The
possibilities of direct legal regulation regarding
the threats of online manipulation are also
discussed - the use and addition of certain data
protection legislation clauses on the exercise of
misconduct with appropriate administrative or
criminal penalties (Spencer, 2019). This tool is
particularly valid for Influencers, who
disseminate manipulation and propaganda
materials, but cover themselves with the interest
of the audience, in particular, anyone who is not
interested in their opinions can leave the digital
channel of its retransmission. Perhaps in the
future the deliberate dissemination of
manipulative information will have problems
with the law.
Avoiding manipulation through photo
verification
The active development of Internet journalism
has influenced the fact that the copyright of
photos is not always used. At the same time, the
use of photos in social networks without a
signature and the right to use them has become
common practice. This is also noticeable in
Ukrainian media, using other people's
professional photos to better showcase content.
For some editors, other people's photos are the
basis for social media promotion (Singh, 2021).
This is what manipulative media resources take
advantage of, using photos from search engines
for manipulative purposes. BBC News editor T.
Barot talks about the mechanism of image
verification (Dorosh, 2014). First, the author of
the photo must be identified. The most common
and effective way is to contact those who sent the
photo to the editor (or uploaded it), and ask this
person herself took the photo. A separate
effective method is to search for the photo
through reverse image surfing. Often the Google
network will show such images, which helps to
see if the photo has been edited. The researcher
notes that the link to the photo in the best
extension is the original source (Dorosh, 2014).
Separately, one should check the person who is
distributing the informational message in order to
gather more information about them there are a
number of different platforms, but predominantly
they are created for U.S. residents (Hirst, 2018).
However, there are some that will be useful for
Ukrainians as well. In particular, the platform
Pipl. com - is designed to find a user of the
Internet, by entering the name and surname of the
author of the content you can identify him, find
the main of his photos. This program implements
a search on all known social networks, its
peculiarity is that it searches on the basis of
deepWeb, which is ignored by simple search
engines.
In a photo verification system, it is important to
identify small details and discrepancies. To do
this, there are special tools for checking photos.
The easiest tool is the Google Image reverse
search. By uploading the photo to the system
Google finds similar pictures. In the case where
the system finds hundreds of steps of photos, you
should enter keywords. A reverse photo search is
implemented by the Tineye service, which filters
out similar images by time. There is a program
Google Earth (Dorosh, 2014) to check the photo
from the scene. For example, the message
indicates that the streets of Kharkov are depicted.
In order to check this, you can use the specified
program, which shows the panorama of any
streets. Service Yomapic finds with the help of
social networks to find photos taken in a certain
place. Ukrainian journalists use this resource to
find out if people live in the occupied territories
(Dorosh, 2014). JPEGSnoop is a resource that
allows you to view photo metadata, it detects if
an image has been edited and highlights errors in
corrupted files. At the same time, the Findexif
platform identifies EXIF data (i.e., basic
information about how, where and when the
photo was taken, what device, indicates the main
characteristics of the image. Another online
resource that reveals the purpose of the data is
Jeffreys Exif Viewer. Another way to check the
photo is to determine what the weather
conditions were in the analyzed place on a
particular day.
Protection against manipulation: checking
video products
Another mechanism for countering manipulation
is video product verification. The authors
propose a basic algorithm for video verification,
Volume 12 - Issue 61
/ January 2023
109
http:// www.amazoniainvestiga.info ISSN 2322- 6307
taking into account such criteria as origin,
location, and source.
The first important step is to identify the genesis
of the video. Predominantly the video is
accompanied by tags, its descriptions, and
comments that affect its identification (Tuters,
2020). In order to start verification, keywords
from this information should be identified and
searched. Separately, a search for early videos
matching the keywords should be implemented:
this will allow the results to be viewed and
compared. The next step involves checking
online visitor profiles. Many modern resources
allow you to contact those who have distributed
or downloaded content. Analyzing these people
will allow you to analyze exactly who was
interested in the video message. When
researching a video owner's account, the
following information should be considered:
where the account is registered, where the
account is located, or the dated video content
they are distributing, the quality of the content
distributed. If the videos have the extension AVI
or .MP4, it indicates that they are downloaded
directly from the device. In case the video
description contains the phrase “Uploaded via
YouTube Capture” it indicates that the video was
taken with a smartphone. A separate step is to
check the personal information of the person who
uploaded the video. First, you should determine
if there are related acanths online and find out if
they are active now. After that, find out if the
account in question is connected to social
networks and if there is information about the
person in directories such as LinkedIn and
Spokeo. Separate to this system is the location of
the video. This procedure begins with
establishing the location covered in the video.
Resources such as Wikimapia or Google Earth
can be used for this (Dorosh, 2014).
An analysis of this data will determine if the
video messages uploaded from the profile being
analyzed should be trusted.
The practice of creating organizations
resisting media manipulation
In European countries there is a whole network
of special organizations engaged in the formation
of media literacy among the entire population. A
typical way for a fact-checking organization to
emerge is through the formation of fact-checking
organizations in media editorial offices. In
particular, in 2014 the newspaper “Metro”
created a fact-checking project called
“Viralgranskaren”. “PolitiFact” is one of the
best-known American fact-checking
organizations, with 15 regional chapters. This
organization is owned by the “Tampa Bay Times
newspaper”. There are also factcheck media
resources in Ukraine: “the Stop Fake” project,
the analytical resource “Vox Check” and the
factcheck media “Slovo i Dilo”. The project “No
Lies” was the first to show fact-checking in a
television format, founded a number of
correctional projects, and created the first
methodical manual on fact-checking in Ukraine.
On the other hand, the Academy of the Ukrainian
Press is also engaged in the implementation of
various projects on media education of all
categories of citizens.
There are also special organizations, which are
not subordinate to the media. In particular, in
Great Britain there are two projects “Newswise”
and “News Literacy Network”, which organize
various events that contribute to the support of
media competencies. As part of these projects,
numerous trainings are held to promote critical
thinking and an analytical view of the media.
Participants in such events learn to emphasize the
source of information, whether it is trustworthy
or spreads rumors, it is balanced. Note that in the
UK there are many officially supported media
literacy initiatives that are implemented by both
the media and the educational community. In
Germany, the media regulator's “Zeebra” project
is popular. It is a special line of help and
questions about everyday digital life. This
resource answers personal and anonymous calls.
Within the established network there is close
cooperation with various public institutions and
organizations. If citizens often have similar
questions, the “Zeebra” team forms special
explanatory materials on its pages. Between the
topics with which citizens address, the most
popular whether certain information is true, what
is misinformation. At the same time people often
do not share different problems - hoaxes, fakes,
propaganda, so the outlined network offers a
broad analysis of these phenomena, helping the
population to understand the manipulative
mechanisms.
Factchecking organizations are also being
created at universities. In particular, in 2012, at
the initiative of Czech students at T. G. Masaryk
University, a project called “Demagog.cz”
appeared, the purpose of which is to check
factual statements and determine their
credibility.
The process of manipulating public opinion is
especially active during elections (Shafi &
Vultee, 2018). However, the electoral legislation
of Ukraine, unfortunately, does not regulate the
110
www.amazoniainvestiga.info ISSN 2322- 6307
rules of election campaigning on the Internet and
social networks, which is used by influential
politicians. In 2016, on the eve of the presidential
election, the University of Wisconsin-Madison
created “The Fact Checks”, the content of which
consists of students and professors checking
local politicians. Students from the University of
Cologne founded the “Faktenzoom Project”,
which aims to analyze statements made by
politicians on the eve of an election. At the same
time, some leading European states prohibit paid
campaigning on certain Internet resources and
television. We are talking about such states as
France, Denmark, Belgium, Britain, Germany,
Sweden, Switzerland, etc. This is due to make the
electoral process as transparent and fair as
possible. Such a ban was caused by
considerations about the violation of the
principle of equality of candidates: the rich have
much more opportunities and resources to
distribute advertising, and the election campaign
is transformed into a “confrontation of financial
weapons”. In addition, in most European states,
television channels must serve an equal amount
of free airtime to each candidate. At the same
time, in France, 6 months before the election, any
paid advertising in any type of media is banned
(Hirst, 2018). For this reason, to counteract
manipulation, public policy must first rely on
journalism and media literacy, where the former
acts as an activity to gather and release
information in such a way as to organize the news
chain.
Conclusions
Therefore, Internet journalists have opportunities
to manipulate public consciousness, but also to
resist such influences. An important means of
resisting manipulative influence is to resort to
internal critical thinking and to acquire media
literacy and media competence skills. This will
allow us to analyze information, find
contradictions in it, and interpret it. An important
internal way to fight against manipulation is a
balanced emotional state because articles on the
Internet and comments on them can irritate, sow
discouragement and neglect, and perceiving
materials rationally and impartially will help to
combat the distortion of information.
Modern mechanisms for countering
manipulation in journalism also include fact-
checking, which describes not only individual
users, but also special groups of persons who
leave themselves for the purpose of countering
manipulation in the information space. Separate
mechanisms of resistance to manipulations in the
Internet media are verification of photo and video
content, as shown in the study, it can be carried
out on many free online resources. Note the
prospects of a legal response to manipulative
actions, which, however, require further
consideration through the discussions of
scientists regarding deliberate manipulation and
freedom of speech.
The experience of European countries in creating
fact-checking organizations is important for
Ukraine: they are created not only at the level of
public media structures, but also on the basis of
universities, involving active young people in
this activity.
Bibliographic references
Abbas Naqvi, M. H., Jiang, Y., Miao, M.,
Naqvi, M. H., & Wu, Y.-C. J. (2020). The
effect of social influence, trust, and
entertainment value on social media use:
Evidence from Pakistan. Cogent Business &
Management, 7(1), 1723825. doi:
https://doi.org/10.1080/23311975.2020.1723
825
Brooks, H. Z., & Porter, M. A. (2020). A model
for the influence of media on the ideology of
content in online social networks. Physical
Review Research, 2(2). doi:
https://doi.org/10.1103/physrevresearch.2.02
3041
Cheung, M. L., Pires, G., & Rosenberger, P. J.
(2020). The influence of perceived social
media marketing elements on consumer–
brand engagement and brand
knowledge. Asia Pacific Journal of
Marketing and Logistics, 32(3), 695–720.
doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/apjml-04-2019-
0262
Dorosh, M. (2014, February 5). 13 Online
Content Verification Tools. Media Sapiens.
Retrieved from
https://ms.detector.media/how-
to/post/1707/2014-02-05-13-onlayn-
instrumentiv-dlya-perevirky-kontentu/
Hirst, M. (2018). Research and Verification.
In Navigating Social Journalism, p. 199–228.
New York: Routledge, 2019.: Routledge. doi:
https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315401263-10
Karlsen, R., & Aalberg, T. (2021). Social media
and trust in news: An experimental study of
the effect of facebook on news story
credibility. Digital Journalism, 1–17. doi:
https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2021.1945
938
Kaur, M., & Verma, R. (2018). Social media.
In Media influence (p. 1–8). IGI Global. doi:
https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-5225-3929-
2.ch001
Volume 12 - Issue 61
/ January 2023
111
http:// www.amazoniainvestiga.info ISSN 2322- 6307
Mykolaienko, A. (2019). Fake news in the
ukrainian media space: Technologies of
experimental projects. Scientific Notes of the
Institute of Journalism, 1(74), 29–37. doi:
https://doi.org/10.17721/2522-
1272.2019.74.3
Rogers, R., & Niederer, S. (2021). Politics of
social media manipulation. Amsterdam
University Press.
Shafi, A., & Vultee, F. (2018). One of many tools
to win the election. In Media
influence (p. 24–42). IGI Global. doi:
https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-5225-3929-
2.ch003
Singh, D. (2021). Media manipulation. SSRN
Electronic Journal, 1–10. doi:
https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3793082
Spencer, S. B. (2019). The Problem of Online
Manipulation. SSRN Electronic Journal,
959–1006. doi:
https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3341653
Tuters, M. (2020). Fake news and the Dutch
YouTube political debate space. In The
Politics of Social Media
Manipulation (p. 217–238). New
Prinsengrachtt, 89, 1018. VR Amsterdam
Nederland: Amsterdam University Press. doi:
10.5117/9789463724838_ch07
Vysotska, O., & Vysotska, S. (2020).
Information evaluation: Teaching students to
detect bias, fake, and manipulation ukrainian
perspective. Science and Education a New
Dimension, VIII(94), 81–86. doi:
https://doi.org/10.31174/send-pp2020-
236viii94-18
Warwick, C. R., Baker, L. M., Fernandez, J. C.,
& Rumble, J. (2021). Getting the most out of
social media: What is social
media? Edis, 2021(4). doi:
https://doi.org/10.32473/edis-wc220-2021