Introduction
Although advertising researchers have conducted
a number of studies on the gender role of
stereotypes, there are many ambiguities such as:
what are the main stereotypes of both genders;
which stereotypes are falling away and which are
confirmed; as well as what is expressed in the
high evaluation of stereotypes in advertising by
consumers. According to Desvaux, Devillard-
Hoellinger and Baumgarten, if precise reasons
for these features are not formed, the
phenomenon of "stereotype in advertising" will
continue to exist and be studied (Desvaux,
Devillard-Hoellinger and Baumgarten, 2007,
p. 44). All this necessitates a content analysis
regarding the influence of stereotypes, as well as
establishing the achieved positive and negative
impact on both genders. The portrayal of male
and female figures in advertising, the following
of certain stereotypes, as well as the imposition
of certain norms of behavior for the genders,
cause different reactions of consumers for the
two genders. The traditionally repeated
stereotypical image has one advantage – it makes
consumers' thinking more lazy, because
"stereotypes are created by the continual,
extended exposure of consumers to patterns of
imagery" (Paek, Nelson & Vilela, 2011, p.197).
Advertisers portray men and women differently
in advertisements, but these different images lead
to intended and unintended effects (Baeza,
2011). Internationally, advertising conforms to
traditional gender images (Paek, Nelson &
Vilela, 2011, p.193), that is, not mixing of the
genders, demonstrations with same-sex couples
and marriages were observed. Even if one media
can afford an advertisement with a gay couple,
the trend does not continue in other issues of the
media, which has the mechanisms to confirm
stereotypical behavior (Phillips & McQuarrie,
2011). Therefore, advertisers are hesitant to what
extent they can use stereotypical images to
achieve influence. Paek, Nelson and Vilela state
that "men are represented in prominent visual
and auditory roles, while women are portrayed in
stereotypical ways" (Paek, Nelson and Vilela,
2011, p.192). Offering new current research on
the stereotypical presence of women and men in
advertisements, it is expected to shift the
perspectives of both users and researchers
(Eisend, 2019; Akestam, Rosengren, Dahlen,
Liljedal & Berg, 2021), and according to the
researcher of the present work, to cause different
psychological reactance (Brehm, 1966;
Thorbjørnsen & Dahlén, 2011) in the users.
Therefore, the different images, the implied
images of the two genders, as well as their
combined presentation with different products
and services, can determine some of the final
results in the supply and demand of the
advertised goods.
The present article, which aims to explore cross-
gender responses to stereotypical advertising
influence as part of consumer reactance, is
organized as follows: the first section reviews
previous literature on stereotype terminology and
understanding. In accordance with this review,
the hypothesis regarding the influence of gender
on stereotypical advertising is formed. It then
describes the methodology used in the study and
its main findings on stereotypical influence
measured by gender. Finally, a discussion of the
obtained results and a summary of the
conclusions of the study are made.
Theoretical Framework
In order to outline the social effects on
consumers and society, researchers find that the
relationship between gender roles (Eisend, 2019;
Hatzithomas, Boutsouki & Ziamou, 2016),
stereotypes in advertisements (Taylor & Stern,
1997; Knoll, Eisend & Steinhagen, 2011) should
be explored, but also the role of brand and media-
related social effects (Eisend, 2019; Wolin &
Korgaonkar, 2003). According to the new
advertising trends, the effect of gender
stereotypes is studied, that is, these are binary
definitions of gender according to which study
the effect of gender stereotypes on consumers of
the same (binary) gender (Eisend, 2019, p.78).
Difficulties in research come from the fact that
the concept of gender becomes more nuanced in
different advertisements and societies.
In other longitudinal studies, negative cross-
gender effects of stereotypes in advertising are
sought (Akestam, Rosengren, Dahlen, Liljedal &
Berg, 2021), as well as the specific negative
reactions of both genders to the studied
stereotypes. This is why stereotyping in
advertisements has been the subject of scrutiny
by many academic fields (Akestam Rosengren,
Dahlen, Liljedal & Berg, 2021). This includes
gender studies (Morrison & Shaffer, 2003;
Lorenzen, Grieve & Thomas, 2004; White &
White, 2006; Ricciardelli, Clow & White, 2010),
studies in psychology (Halliwell & Dittmar,
2004; Zawisza & Cinnirella, 2010; Meyers-Levy
& Loken, 2015), as well as marketing and
advertising research (Antioco, Smeesters & Le
Boedec, 2012; Huhmann & Limbu, 2016; Gentry
& Harrison, 2010; Zayer, McGrath & Castro-
Gonz´alez, 2020).