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/ July 2022
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.34069/AI/2022.55.07.11
How to Cite:
Manko, S. (2022). Women musicians from the Middle Ages to the present: The transformation of the image. Amazonia
Investiga, 11(55), 107-113. https://doi.org/10.34069/AI/2022.55.07.11
Women musicians from the Middle Ages to the present: The
transformation of the image
Las mujeres músicas desde la Edad Media hasta la actualidad: La transformación de la
imagen
Received: July 20, 2022 Accepted: August 26, 2022
Written by:
Manko Svitlana47
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7143-2597
Abstract
The article characterizes the problem of
transformation of the image of a woman in
musical art from the Middle Ages to the present.
The work uses both general scientific methods of
research: analysis and synthesis, as well as
historical methods. As a result, we consider the
formation of women in musical art in the Middle
Ages, the problems of salon music-making of the
XVII-XVIII centuries, and the problem of
transformation of the role of women in musical
art at the turn of the XX-XXI centuries is
characterized. As a result, it is noted that the
music of the Middle Ages was defined by a
cappella singing and unanimity. The most
famous composer of that time was Hildegard of
Bingen, who is considered the probable founder
of opera. Women-troubadours - medieval
poetesses, songwriters, and their performers -
held a place of honor in the music of the time.
The basic motifs of their songs were different:
some sang the consolation of love, while others
sang the suffering of one-sided love. Despite this,
until the XX century, the attitude towards women
musicians was biased, and the image of music
was often used in literature to refer to the “new”
woman, i.e., feminist.
Keywords: women, music, history, the
transformation of the image, current state.
Introduction
Cultural processes undergo a transformation
along with the passage of time. In modern
circumstances, female musicians are popular in
movies, pop culture, computer games, visual arts,
etc. At the same time, such a situation was not
47
PhD in Art Studies, senior instructor of pop singing department State Academy of Culture, Kharkiv, Ukraine.
typical for the times of antiquity, let alone the
periods of earlier history, when attitudes toward
women were extremely prejudiced. For example,
during the Middle Ages, there was a prejudice
against women in the arts, which were seen as an
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exclusively male endeavor. However, as the
detailed analysis of the problem indicates, this
view is too categorical. The relevance of this
work lies in the fact that it demonstrates selected
biographical sketches of some medieval women
musicians. At the same time, the evolution of the
image of women musicians in European cultures
reflects the whole thorny path that had to pass in
the times of freedom in the 21st century, in
which, unfortunately, there is still room for
chauvinistic outbursts and provocations. This
issue has not been the object of special attention
in professional academic literature. Researchers
have mainly focused on isolated aspects, which
had clear biographical or chronological
coordinates, and have not conducted thorough
summaries. Our study offers a deeper analysis of
the problem and the development of certain
synthetic generalizations, which can be useful for
the study of gender history, musicology,
sociology, anthropology of human relations,
axiology, etc. In particular, the following
problems are foreseen to be considered:
peculiarities of the formation of women in the art
of the Middle Ages, women in the musical life of
the XVII-XVIII centuries, the transformation of
the female role in the art of the XIX-XX
centuries, the female role in the modern musical
life. Consequently, the main purpose of the
article is to study the image of women-musicians
from the Middle Ages to the present.
Theoretical Framework or Literature Review
The works of contemporary art researchers are
significant for this study. In particular,
Strohm (2018) characterized musical life in the
Middle Ages. He believed that music had
influenced both women and men throughout the
centuries. Sajsa (2021) studied the influence of
women on the development of music. She also
characterized how the discrimination of women
by men affected the development of women
musicians. Mereniuk (2021) examined some
aspects of gender roles in the history. Wiley &
Rose (2021) characterized the phenomenon of
the interaction of the suffragette movement of the
nineteenth and twentieth centuries with
literature, art, drama, music, and film. At the
same time, Mielke & Znorovszky (2020)
investigated the position of women in medieval
Europe. This study is important for our article
because it highlights the circumstances of the
formation of the phenomenon of discrimination.
In addition, Mielke & Znorovszky (2020)
characterized the role of women in the cultural
life of Europe in the V-XV centuries. Maude
(2021) studied the image of women in medieval
literary texts. In addition, Morabito (2019)
described seventeenth- and eighteenth-century
music. He focused his attention on the study of
Baroque. He emphasizes that this style was
widespread throughout Europe and influenced
the further development of the art of music
(Morabito, 2019). Although the Baroque style is
not very popular now, all other researchers
identified it as the leading trend in the history of
music development. The work of authors
exploring contemporary issues in music is also
valuable to ours. For example, Sundberg &
Thalen (2015) analyzed contemporary trends in
music. In addition, they compared belted and
neutral types of contemporary singing. Nowak &
Bennett (2022) investigated the latest phenomena
in contemporary music and characterized its
transformative potential.
Despite this, the problem of the role of women in
medieval musical life remains unexplored. This
can be explained by the then-biased attitude
towards women; hence many chroniclers
deliberately circumvented the memory of women
in a particular cultural sphere. In addition, this
problem is debatable due to the scarcity of
sources. Little researched is the problem of the
transformation of society's attitude to the
phenomenon of “women in art” directly through
the mental prism. We will try to address these
issues in this paper. At the same time, taking into
account the analysis of contemporary female
music, the problem of choice is not clear (why
female performers choose certain genres of
music and are almost not represented in others).
We will try to study the latter problem of
psychological choice in the last part of this
article.
Materials and methods
Methods
The research is based on the use of general
scientific research methods. In particular, such
methods as analysis, synthesis, induction, and
deduction were used in the work. The method of
analysis involves the study of the object in its
division into smaller parts. The method of
synthesis influenced on research many smaller
aspects of musical art into a single whole. Using
a comparativistic method of research it was
possible to compare the position of women in
music from the Middle Ages to the present time.
Also, the axiomatic method of research was used
in the work. The latter involves the selection of
certain axioms (inviolable statements) based on
which specific broad conclusions are drawn. In
particular, the work highlights the following
specific issues for research: the emergence of
Manko, S. / Volume 11 - Issue 55: 107-113 / July, 2022
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women in music in the Middle Ages, women-
musicians in the XVII-XVIII centuries, the
transformation of the role of women in the art of
the XX-XXI centuries, the modern musical life
of women).
It should be noted that the main materials of this
research were both historical sources and
information from the mass media. In particular,
the problem of the position of women in music is
illuminated based on the study of medieval
literary works. The legacy of women troubadours
occupies a notable place in this, quotations from
which are partially covered in the results. Based
on a comprehensive analysis of contemporary art
media, it has been possible to identify current
trends in the development of music. For this
reason, special attention was paid to the
phenomenon of misogyny - the phenomenon of
manifestations of hatred towards women.
In addition, our study is based on empirical
research. Based on the historical-comparativist
research method, it was possible to highlight the
participation of women in musical art, in
particular in operas during the 19th and 20th
centuries. It should be noted that at that time
women hardly played important roles in musical
productions. To identify popular music genres
among women, an empirical study was
conducted among 16 women, who ranged in age
from 22-30 years old, offered to be subjects. The
main task of the singers was to sing the specified
songs in the style closest to them. This allowed
us to characterize the most popular genres of
singing and music for contemporary female
singers.
Results and discussion
The Middle Ages: The Making of Women in
Music
The music of the Middle Ages covers the time
from the fall of the Roman Empire (5th century)
to the beginning of the 15th century when the
Renaissance began. Key features of this time are
the noticeable connection between religion and
culture. However, even in those times,
multiculturalism was observed in many areas,
including culture. (Parshyn & Mereniuk, 2022).
In addition, in the musical field preference was
given to a cappella singing and unanimity.
(Strohm, 2018). The main motifs of the songs of
that time had pronounced religious features.
Obviously, men at that time had a prominent role
in the arts (Mielke & Znorovszky, 2020).
However, it was then that the emergence of
women in music took place, which is primarily
due to the personality of Hildegard of Bingen
(1098-1179). It was this woman who was the first
composer whose name is known in history. More
than eight of her compositions have survived to
the present day. In particular, Ordo Virtutum
(The Church Force) and Spēka spēle (The Game
of Forces) are her most famous musical works,
pieces about morality. Hildegarde of Bingen's
works are examples of the first, unique works for
female voices with one male part (Strohm, 2018).
Predominantly one man played the devil, but
because of his disfigured nature, he could not
sing in her musical pieces. They were mainly
created for religious ceremonial concerts, and the
main singers of which were nuns (Maude, 2021).
We suppose that the features of such staging in
her works served as the basis for what would in
the future be called opera. In general, the music
of Hildegard of Bingen was monophonic,
consisting of a single melodic line. Her works
were designed for high soprano and limited
instrumental accompaniment.
In addition, women troubadours - medieval
poets, songwriters, and their performers -
occupied a special place in the music of that time.
This phenomenon of women's activity is
practically not investigated in historiography.
Troubadours created a canso, a song consisting
of three parts. In particular, the first part
(exordium) explained the purpose of writing the
song (Lee, 2013). The main part told the key plot
of the song and ended it succinctly in the form of
a cobla. The last words were addressed to the
patron or mate (they were called tornado).
Among the female troubadours, the Countess De
Dia (1140-1175), still called Beatrice (Sajsa,
2021) in historiography, is well known. She was
in love with another troubadour, Rambaut
d'Aurenga, so her musical works were dedicated
to him. The main theme of her musical works is
the illumination of pure love. In addition,
Beatrice appeals to feminine virtues: “Valer mi
deu mos pretz e mos paratges” (“I must rely on
beauty”) (Kay & Sarah, 1990, p. 104)
Another woman troubadour was Castellosa of
Auvergne, whose work dates from the 13th
century. She predominantly used the male system
of expressing feelings. Her works are dominated
by the theme of suffering and death. At the same
time, the phenomenon of suffering is translated
to the physical level in the symbolic form of
illness. In particular, her song says: (“Sieviete
nomirs no slimības, ja vīrietis to nepieņems”)
(“A woman dies of illness when she is not treated
by a man”) (Kay & Sarah, 1990, p. 104).
Consequently, in her songs, the “healing powers”
are possessed by the man. Poor plots are not
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typical for the work of troubadours. So, as we can
see, despite the typical perceptions of “domestic”
women of the Middle Ages, still women found
time for creative development and self-
expression in the then (primarily with religious
canons) art. The trends under study were
widespread throughout medieval Europe,
including outside the “Latin” West. For example,
a similar attitude towards women was inherent in
Kievan Rus' (Mereniuk & Parshyn, 2021).
Although in some socio-cultural aspects women
had relatively equal rights with men, which
allowed them to engage in self-realization and
protect their rights (Mereniuk, 2021).
Women Musicians in the XVII-XVIII
centuries.
The artistic life of Europe in the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries took place in numerous
salons, which set the tone of cultural life across
Europe. Modern art historians believe that the
life of France in the late seventeenth and early
eighteenth centuries created the foundation for
the so-called “salon music” (Sajsa, 2021). At the
same time, the harpsichord was invented as a
special musical instrument designed for women.
It was believed that it manifested the refinement
and sophistication of women's nature.
Consequently, harpsichordists enjoyed
widespread popularity during the period in
question. In particular, Marguerite Antoinette
was the first court harpsichordist, and she also
taught the instrument to the daughters of Louis
XIV (Morabito, 2019). Hélène de Montgerie
(1764-1836) was an eighteenth-century virtuoso
pianist, composer, and teacher (Morabito, 2019).
The person in question was a notable figure in
European music at the time. At the age of 21, she
was admitted to the National Music Institute. She
wrote a theoretical work for her students entitled
The General Piano Method. At the same time,
Therese von Paradis (1759-1824) also became
one of the most famous figures among
eighteenth-century composers in Austria.
Although she lost her sight as a child, it
influenced her work. The parade was able to
perform with the best male musicians primarily
because of the favor of Empress Maria Theresia.
Women's music was widely used in the music of
the eighteenth century: more than 150 names of
women composers are known in the history of
the music of that time. Countries like France (45
female representatives) and England (44) took
the lead. In Italy there were 27 women composers
and singers at the time, in Germany - 24, in
Austria - 10. There were isolated figures of
women musicians in the Netherlands, Denmark,
Belgium, Bohemia, Poland, etc. (Wiley & Rose,
2021).
Despite this, there was still prejudice against
women musicians at this time. Even the German
Enlightenment had no effect on eliminating such
societal attitudes toward women in music
(Philips, 2011). The mentioned fact, first of all,
explains the limitation of creativity of these
authors to the genres of popular songs. At the
same time, the main purpose of a woman in the
ideas of that time was reduced to three things: to
be engaged in motherhood, to be a wife for her
husband, and to be the mistress of the house.
Consequently, activities in a closed environment
of educated musicians were not considered too
popular.
In the late nineteenth and early twentieth
centuries, the image of women musicians also
belonged to certain symbols of the feminist
movement (McPherson, 2021). This can be
witnessed in some literary works, in particular,
Valse melancholic by the Ukrainian writers XIX-
XX centuries. They greatly expanded the idea of
the problem of women in Eastern Europe at the
time, repeatedly actively opposing the traditional
male perceptions of the other sex.
The transformation of the role of women in
music at the turn of the ХХ-ХХІ centuries.
The majority of composers listed in textbooks of
classical music, and whose pieces are frequently
performed in the regular repertoire for
concerts compose males, even though there have
been a significant number of female
composers throughout the period of classical
music. The musicologist Marcia Citron has
inquired «why is the music written by female
composers not included in the classical repertoire
that is standard? ». The author argues that in the
1890s, female composers usually composed art
songs to be performed in small recitals, not
orchestral symphonies that were intended to be
performed by the orchestra inside a big hall, and
the latter being considered the most important
genre for composers. because women composers
didn't compose a lot of symphonies, they were
not considered to be significant as composers
(Skowroneck, 2010).
Note that in the past, professionally-
run orchestras have been largely or completely
made up of male. So, previously only men were
participated in the work of orchestras. It is not
only about the position of the conductor, but also
about ordinary performers. In some conservative
groups, the only role a woman was allowed to
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play was that of a harpist (O’Bryan & Harrison,
2014). In particular, in the Vienna National
Orchestra in the 20th century, this situation
existed for a long time. It is obvious that this
orchestra was in the leading positions in the
world of classical music. Women did not work in
the Vienna Philharmonic until 1997 (Björkner,
2008). The situation changed only after the
American tour. Women's organizations in the
USA actively called for a boycott of the
performance of the Viennese musicians, because
there were no women in their group (Solis &
Nettl, 2009).
From that time, women began to actively
participate in the activities of large orchestras of
national importance (Lohman, 2021). There's
been many talented singers throughout the years,
but the most talented female singers have
distinctive voices and personalities that
guarantee they can compete against their male
counterparts (LaFleur, 2020).
Note that we conducted a small sociological
study with 16 young female performers between
the ages of 24 and 36 who had been involved in
the musical arts for at least 7 years. They were
allowed to choose a style of song performance at
will. The vast majority of them chose a genre of
pop music, generally reflecting and confirming
current musical trends. These trends are dictated
by the globalization and multiculturalism of
music (Lee, 2013). A significant part of pop
music defines ideas of global spaces, national
equality, and multicultural society. Therefore,
women composers around the world choose this
genre most for development, although we also
note the popularity of rock music, jazz, and blues.
While there used to be a surge in the popularity
of rap music, now although this style is popular,
it is still giving way to other new styles. It should
be noted that the trend of ethno-music, which is
actively implemented by female performers in
Eastern Europe, is widespread now.
Note that among the many contemporary issues
that are relevant to female performers is the
problem of misogyny in rap music (McPherson,
2021). Hip-hop performers are probably not the
biggest fans of misogyny in the world, but this
particular musical trend is a kind of maximum
quintessence of hatred for women. More than
once experts have paid attention to selections of
the most resonant music videos and lyrics, in
which this hatred is dispersed. In fact, every
famous and successful rapper has “distinguished
himself” by an extremely biased panchlinic
toward the other sex. The rap aesthetic is full of
descriptions of “bitches” and “hoes” who are
greedy, treacherous, totally hypocritical, stupid,
etc. In music videos such lyrics of a woman (not
in the image of a mother or wife) are perceived
as an attribute - the same as a luxury car, bundles
of dollars, or chains made of gold. So, the attitude
towards her is formed as an object (Walker,
2019).
Certainly, machismo is only part of playing to the
public, a kind of tribute to fashion, like teeth
encrusted with diamonds. Misogyny is not an
indication that the performer is a potential rapist
(Sajsa, 2021). The real scandal was one of
Eminem's first known albums, The Marshall
Mathers LP, where 11 of the 14 songs sow hatred
of women. One of the tracks (“Kim”) was
dedicated to the rapper's wife and is still
considered a model of misogyny towards one,
specific woman. At the same time, the distance
between word and deed is high, so no one has
made any real claims against the rapper. At the
same time, the sentiments broadcast by hip-hop
artists affect the mass consciousness and affect
the understanding of women around the world.
To a certain extent, these are the laws of the
genre. Bias against women did not appear out of
thin air. In the case of rap culture, it is related to
the “voice of the street,” which values
authenticity and the truth of life as much as
ostentatious videos with luxurious lives (Sajsa,
2021). Pervasive poverty, street crime, drug
addiction, early pregnancy (whose rates have
only relatively recently begun to decline in the
African-American community in the United
States), and racial bias form a kind of social
“order” from which hip-hop lyrics sprout (Borch
et al., 2011).
At the same time, a new generation of female
performers in rap was supposed to form a
renewed perspective, but this has not happened.
Many popular female performers (Young M.A.,
Lil' Kim, and others) have been much more
willing to adopt machista rhetoric, using it as an
elementary and practical way to fight their
female rivals.
Conclusion
So, the image of women musicians has
undergone a long evolution from the Middle
Ages to modern times. The music of the Middle
Ages was generally defined by a cappella singing
and unison. The main motifs of the songs of that
time were religious. Hildegard of Bingen was the
first composer whose name is known in history.
She wrote plays about morality, perhaps
founding the genre of opera. At the same time,
women troubadours - medieval poets,
112
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songwriters, and performers - held a place of
honor in the music of the time. The troubadours
created a song consisting of three parts. As it
turned out, the main motives of these songs were
different. Some women sang of consolation from
love, others sang of suffering from one-sided
love. What united their works, however, was the
fact that the main lyrical hero was a woman
recounting her own experiences and anxieties.
Throughout the XVII-XVIII centuries, the salons
set the tone for cultural life throughout Europe.
French life in the late XVII and early XVII
centuries laid the foundation for the so-called
“salon music”. At the same time, the harpsichord
was invented as a special musical instrument for
women. It was believed that it manifested the
refinement and elegance of women's nature.
Despite this, the attitude towards women
musicians did not get any better, and the image
of music was often used in literature to define the
image of the “new woman”. Even in the ХХ
century, professionally managed orchestras were
largely composed of men. So, in the ХІХ–ХХ
centuries, only men participated in orchestras. It
is not only about the position of a conductor, but
also about ordinary performers. For example,
women did not work in the Vienna Philharmonic
until 1997. The situation changed only after the
American tour. Women's organizations in the
United States actively called for a boycott of the
Viennese musicians. Since that time, women
have been active in major orchestras of national
importance. At the same time, today women
musicians freely participate in pop, rock, jazz,
and blues bands. On the other hand, misogyny in
rap music remains a problem. And female singers
often use machismo and other trappings of rap in
figuring out relationships with other female
singers.
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