The phenomenon of connotation in the comparative aspect (on the material of English and Ukrainian languages): problems of modern research

Introduction

Connotation is a phenomenon that covers the sphere of associative-image representation of a certain reality based on awareness of the internal mechanisms of the name. Given that in the process of identifying the basis for the emergence of connotative shades of lexical meanings of words, their bilateral nature is clarified, it is vital to examine the associative and emotional vectors of the mechanism of such connections. Linguistic traditions and various modern scientific concepts have different interpretations of the connotation, due to different approaches to clarifying its specificity and status, which leads to several theoretical problems.

An analysis of the retrospective aspect shows that connotation is a multifaceted phenomenon that entered linguistics in the 17th century thanks to Por-Royal grammar but received considerable attention from scholars in the 20th and 21st centuries, when more detailed studies of semiotics, stylistics, pragmatics, communicative linguistics, cognitive linguistics, intertextuality theory, etc. began (Zaichenko, 2019).

Unfortunately, although a significant amount of research is available on this linguistic phenomenon, neither the status of the connotation nor its structure and limits of functioning have been determined to date.

A comprehensive analysis of the phenomenon of connotation and clarification of its problematic aspects at the present stage examined connotations in Ukrainian and English through a comparative aspect and found that the basis for their linguistic embodiment are figurative, evaluative, emotional, and expressive components of conothemes that have cognitive and emotional character, and in the process of an embodiment of connotation in speech situations they are layered with additional components of the semantic structure of the word, which have ethnocultural or sociocultural nature. No less diverse are the definition of connotation and the ability of connotations to form a single sociolinguistic-psychological connotative model of meaning, since connotation is mostly not only and not so individual, but also common to native speakers, some scholars even introduce the concept of "connotation sphere", which include areas in which language tools are combined with a certain type of ideas and sensations.

The paper focuses on favorable conditions for the actualization of connotations, including the fact that the contextual environment, which can be not only a factor in the emergence of additional values but also the background of their functioning is quite favorable for connotation. As for the implementation of the connotation, the most significant are situational, cultural, and psychological contexts. The manifestation of the fact that the systemic duality of connotation determines the duality of its properties is the simultaneous consideration of connotation as a systemic, fixed, embedded in the value of the language unit mechanisms of secondary nomination within a particular social worldview, and subjective, optional, with some associative nature and is realized during the functioning of language units in the context. This suggests that connotations are characterized by variability, which may be influenced by the historical period, political situation, etc. Also, during the study, it was noted that during the implementation of connotative information due to the image, which is the basis of analogy, there is a transition of components of conceptual structures in language. The connotative properties of word-forming means were not ignored in this study, as word- forming elements cannot but have a connection with connotation.

Theoretical Framework or Literature Review

During the study of the phenomenon of connotation, the work of such authors as Babiy (2020), Vynnychenko (2005), Hashibayazova (2019), Hrymalyuk (2020), Zagnitko (2012), Zaichenko (2019), Ishchenko (2010), Kudyba (2004), Kunin (1986), Marchuk (2015), Maslova (2001), Matsko (2003), Mikhailovich (2015), Mozovaya (2010), Telia (1996), Phil (2012), Uzhchenko (2007).

Table 1.
The works of scholars on the phenomenon of connotation.

However, despite the great interest of scholars in studying the phenomenon of connotation, the problematic issues of the comparative aspect of Ukrainian and English on the phenomenon of connotation remain not reflected in the work of scientists, and, therefore, this issue needs more thorough analysis.

Methodology

To substantiate the definitions and general theoretical principles of the work, the method of analysis and synthesis was used. In general, the analysis is a method of decomposition, division of something integral into constituent elements, properties, relations, aspects, subsystems for further in-depth consideration of each of them. For this purpose, use the abstraction or division of the subject into components. Therefore, the analysis helped to investigate the issue of connotation as a phenomenon more thoroughly. Synthesis, in turn, as a combination of disparate knowledge of an object, its parts, and properties, has helped to reflect connotation as a holistic phenomenon, an interconnected system. The method of observation was used to provide the research process with empirical information. Its significance and value are due to the extraction of material directly from life while observing the embodiment of the phenomenon of connotation in human life. Thanks to this method and systematic and purposeful perception, fixation of phenomena to study their specific changes under certain conditions, analysis, and use in practice. In this case, the method of observation was applied in compliance with such rules and requirements as the desire for objectivity; the focus of observation on significant phenomena, etc.

With the help of the method of definitive analysis, it became possible to determine the content of scientific definitions of connotation. Definitional analysis, as a traditional method of semantic research, allowed us to correlate the meanings of certain lexical items using dictionary interpretations. Thus, the study of lexical meaning by lexical definitions and lexicographic presentation allowed to establish the nature and types of word structure belonging to different semasiological subclasses and semantic categories, in other words, to consider the lexical meaning of the word in terms of its epidigmatics – semantic origin and synchronous identity of the word.

The method of linguistic description of linguistic facts was used to inventory and systematize different approaches to distinguishing between broad and narrow understanding of connotation.

To compare different definitions of the concept of connotation, as well as to compare English and Ukrainian phrases, the method of comparison was used. In general, the comparison is the most common way of scientific knowledge. At the same time, it should be noted that comparison, as a method of cognition, has certain requirements: only such objects and phenomena should be compared, between which there may be a certain objective commonality; comparisons should be made on the most essential grounds. These rules were used to study the phenomenon of connotation in a comparative aspect on the materials of Ukrainian and English.

Results and discussions

Before considering the problematic aspects of the phenomenon of connotation, it is vital to define connotation.

Scholars studying the linguistic theory of connotation study different language levels: lexical, lexico-grammatical, word-forming, stylistic, communicative, the components of which are components of connotative meaning. Thus, linguists position the connotation differently: "stylistic meaning"; "stylistic meaning"; "emotional meaning"; "pragmatic meaning"; "semantic association"; "expressive coloring"; "lexical background"; "emotional and stylistic semantic content", etc. (Hashibayazova, 2019)

These approaches to the term "connotation" confirm the complexity and ambiguity of the interpretation of the term "connotation".

The practice of distinguishing between broad and narrow understanding of connotation is well- established. In a broad sense, the connotation includes any component that complements the subject-conceptual (or denotative) and grammatical content of the language unit and gives it expressiveness based on data relevant to empirical, cultural, historical, and knowledge of the world». In a narrow sense, the connotation is seen as a component of the meaning of a token, which allows it to be used for secondary nomination and arises on associative representations and seems to replace the direct objective meaning.

There are also four components of connotation:

1. expressive and evaluative,


2. contextual,


3. historical and linguistic,


4. historical and cultural.

But the most complete is the following definition of the phenomenon of "connotation" - (Latin connotatio, from connoto – have additional meaning; Latin co (n) – together, notatio – notation, remarks) – additional semantic, emotional, pragmatic, or stylistic nuances that accompany the conceptual and substantive content and arise from the interaction of basic meanings of words and sentences with background knowledge of speakers under the influence of context and speech situation, enable language unit to perform an expressive function, create a special color of speech and contribute to the achievement of appropriate communicative guidelines, provided they are used correctly.

Table 2.
Types of connotations. Data provided by Ukrainets (2013).

With such a division (Table 2), it is possible to single out the problem of the lack of a clear boundary between usual and occasional connotations, because at the time of its origin each connotation was occasional and, depending on its "success", became usual.

Researchers distinguish four elements in the structure of connotation: emotional (emotional), evaluative, expressive and stylistic, or functional-stylistic. However, the lack of unambiguous understanding of the role of the connotative component in the structure of word meaning is due to the diversity of views on the structure of connotation, and the problem of distinguishing components of connotation and its quantitative composition makes it difficult to classify emotional vocabulary.

Regarding the comparative aspect of the phenomenon of connotation on the material of English and Ukrainian languages, the following is established.

In the Ukrainian language, the connotation is studied based on the semantics of tokens, in particular, the psychophonosemantics of names; characteristics of quasi-terms in line with the ratio of individual and collective, the allocation of connotative types of vocabulary in advertising texts, in epistolary, as well as analysis of the connotative component of the internal form of the word in the literary text. Melodiousness as a result of the use of sounds that are pleasant to the ear (acoustic melodiousness) and easy to pronounce (articulatory melodiousness) is undoubtedly a meaningful linguistic and stylistic category for the system and structure of Ukrainian poetic language, as it to some extent adjusts the strategy and tactics of the modal perspective of phonetic units and plays an important role in determining the place of Ukrainian language in ethnocultural world. This confirms that acoustic and articulatory imagery of sound modeling in Ukrainian poetic language is not thought of as a partial phenomenon, but as a functional ability of the national language, which undergoes an aesthetic transformation at all language levels, including phonological, and is a means of increasing the perlocutionary efficiency of sound implicatures of artistic and aesthetic discourse.

Regarding the connotation in English, by comparing the members of synonymous series (dictionary and affix) it is possible to establish the ethnocultural specific essence of the meaning of lexical units of the English language. Connotatively colored lexical units are divided into affixes of language and speech groups. The first includes affixes neologisms and terminology that can give the message a certain color and stylistic color. In English, we see a change in the stylistic affiliation of affixes. A striking example is the prefix cyber-; recorded as part of terminology, it later became part of science fiction, in the modern language it is used in colloquial speech and "virtual" slang. The second group includes affixes that express the emotional expression characteristic of colloquial vocabulary, so in dictionaries, it is accompanied by notes "ironic", "contemptuous", "contemptuous", "taboo", "conversational". the vast majority of English affixes are denotative and grammatical. The main criterion for selecting connotative affixes was to identify the impact on changing, supplementing, or strengthening the connotation of the root base. Unlike connotative affixes, denotative-grammatical ones do not evoke additional associations and do not convey the emotional and expressive mood of the speaker (Nahapetova, 2015).

It is meaningful to note that in both Ukrainian and English we can observe the use of the concept of "sphere of connotation" (Table 3), which includes areas in which language tools are combined with a certain type of ideas and feelings.

Table 3.
The spheres of connotation. Data provided by Zaichenko (2019).

The analysis of English and Ukrainian words shows that the connotative component of the word plays an important role in speech, in assessing the situation, for the selection of words that match the denotative component and differ in stylistic color, evaluation. Ignorance of connotation leads to the use of the word in the wrong context. If we consider connotation as an additional component of the meaning of a language unit, we can distinguish subjective nuances of evaluation, emotionality, expressiveness, functional and stylistic color, as well as nuances due to social, ideological, cultural, situational aspects of communication. But we consider it most expedient to study the phenomenon of connotation when comparing English and Ukrainian languages through intralingual and external-lingual (Table 4) (related to extralinguistic factors, parameters of the communication situation, perception and evaluation of the subject, situation) system.

Table 4.
The phenomenon of connotation through intralingual and external-lingual system. Data provided by Ukrainets (2013).

Thus, there are problematic issues of definition and interpretation of the phenomenon of connotation, which can be solved by applying an integrated approach and establishing a cause- and-effect relationship of this phenomenon.

Discussion

This research seeks to achieve specific objectives to identify the university leadership style regarding the Kaizen approach from the university leaders' and staff’s perspectives – and to illustrate the requirements to improve university leadership by applying the Kaizen approach. The results revealed that the majority of the leaders at the four chosen Arabian universities agreed on the weakness of using the Kaizen approach for enhancing leadership and administration, seeking changes for the best, and keeping up continuous improvements.

The results of the perspectives of the university leaders about applying the Kaizen approach for the enhancement of leadership, administration, and management of all aspects (managerial, financial, academic) showed that they are all in agreement about the needs of Arabian universities. Although there are differences in their locations, they all agreed that using traditional leadership styles makes change and keeping up with globalism very difficult. The results also revealed the importance of applying Kaizen principles to enhance leadership at their university, such as applying the ngQUAD model of Kaizen (identifying the problem, finding the solution, testing the solution’s feasibility, applying the solution), avoiding time-wasting, continuing improvement through daily follow-up within the physical location rather than from within their offices, and Kaizen principles.

Conclusions

Connotation is additional semantic, emotional, pragmatic, or stylistic nuances of usual or occasional character, which are included in the semantics of the word, expressing the emotional and evaluative attitude to reality.

The scientific literature presents a broad and narrow understanding of connotation, as well as a synthesis of both approaches, which shows the versatility and diversity of the concept itself. The most common is the distinction between two types of connotation – usual and occasional. Connotation is used as an additional component of the meaning of the linguistic unit of phonetic, morphological, lexical, and syntactic level, which implicitly laid the emotional, expressive, and evaluative attitude of the subject to the described object of real or unreal reality, and its stylistic color.

In both Ukrainian and English, one can observe the use of the concept of "sphere of connotation", which includes areas in which language tools are combined with a certain type of ideas and feelings. In the analysis of types of connotations there is a problem of lack of a clear boundary between usual and occasional connotations, because at the time of origin each connotation was occasional and depending on its "success" became usual.

With regard to further scientific research, the prospect of studying the phenomenon of connotation is seen in elucidating the peculiarities of the implementation of this category in the semantics of the adjective.